Google This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project to make the world's books discoverable online. It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover. Marks, notations and other maiginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the publisher to a library and finally to you. Usage guidelines Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing tliis resource, we liave taken steps to prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying. We also ask that you: + Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for personal, non-commercial purposes. + Refrain fivm automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help. + Maintain attributionTht GoogXt "watermark" you see on each file is essential for in forming people about this project and helping them find additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it. + Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liabili^ can be quite severe. About Google Book Search Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at |http: //books .google .com/I ^ ■ m^^^f^mmvmmmrm' * %ft « ■■ n , i — im m *. - ' WWWWP /■ ' GRAMMAR OF THE PERSIAN LANGUAGE. TO WHICH IS ADDED, A SELECTION OF EASY EXTRACTS FOR READING, TOGETHER WITH A COPIOUS VOCABULARY. BY DUNCAN FORBES, A.M. MEMBER OP THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY OP OHEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, Member of the Asiatic society op paris, and propessor op oiklental languages and literature in king's college, LONDON. CC' -^ c^ c c ^ SECOND EDITION, GREATLY IMPROVED AND CONSIDERABLY ENLARGED. LONDON: PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR. SOLD BY MESSRS. ALLEN & CO. BOOKSELLERS TO THE HONOURABLE EAST-INDIA COMPANY, 1 LBADENHALL STREET ; AND BY MESSRS. MADDEN & CO. ORIENTAL BOOKSELLBBS, 8 LEADENBAU STREET. 1844 TABLE OF CONTENTS. SECTION I. Of the Persi- Arabic Alphabet : — Primitive Vowels, p. 6 — The Con- sonants 1, £, ^, and 4^, p. 8 — Of the symbols jazm and tashdM, p. 10— Of the letters I, ^, and j^, as Vowels, p. 11 — Of the symbol harma, p. 17 — Of Arabic words, &c., p. 17 — Exercises for Reading and Writing, p. 20 — ^Numerical valne of the Letters, p. 23. SECTION II. Of Substantives, &c. : — Of Gender, p. 20 — Formation of Plurals, p. 20 — Declension of Nouns, p. 27. — Of Adjectives, p. 31. — Of Pronouns* p. 32.— The Verb, p. 35 — Of the Infinitive and Verbal Root, p. 40— Passive Voice, p. 46— Causal Verbs, p. 46 — Negative and Prohibitive Verbs, p. 48. SECTION III. Of Adverbs, p. 50. — Prepositions, p. 51. — Conjunctions, p. 51. — Interjections, p. 52. — Numerals, p. 53. — Derivation of Words, p. 55. — Composition of Words, p. 58. SECTION IV. On Syntax : — Analysis of Sentences, p. 65 — Arrangement of Words, p. 67 — Easy Fable, preceded by Analysis, p. 72 — Construction of Substantives, Adjectives, and Prepositions, p. 73 — Of Pro- nouns, p. 76— Reciprocal, p. 77— Relative, p. 80— Interrogative, p. 81— Concord of Verbs, p. 82— Government of Verbs, p. 84 — The termination .1, p. 86— Auxiliary Verbs, p. 88— Conjunc- tions, 89 — Conclusion, p. 90. N.B. The Author regrets to find that the following errors, not- withstanding his care in correcting the proof-sheets, have escaped his notice till too late : — In p. 37, 1. 11, for c;*^J-*^j;» ^^^ U'^^i^ 5 p. 80, 1. 26, forj^, readjs^. In the Selections, Story 4, 1. 2, for 0***ij/, read c:^v*Jlj];i ; Story 70, 1. 8, for a*3^, read ^j*^ ; the last word of the same Story should be t^]/**, instead of ig^'y**- PREFACE. The object of the following Work is to facilitate the acqui- sition of a language universally allowed to be the richest and most elegant of those spoken in Modem Asia. To the general scholar, the Persian recommends itself, from its vast stores of graceful and solid literature. To the traveller in the East, a knowledge of it is as essential as that of the French used to be in Europe. Lastly, to those gallant bands of British Youth, who annually resort to India, destined to become, in their turn, the guardians of our Eastern Empire, an acquaintance with Persian is of the utmost importance. In the first place, it is the Court language of the Musulman Princes, and that of the higher classes generally; and in the second place, a know- ledge of it is requisite for the proper attainment of the Hindustani, or popular language, which is spoken and understood, more or less, in every part of the country. I have been long convinced, from experience, that a work like the present is a desideratum. A Grammar of any language, adapted for a beginner, ought to be brief and perspicuous, containing only the general and more useful principles of such language. It ought to be ac- companied with easy extracts for practice, as well as a copious Vocabulary. At the same time, the shortest Grammar is too long for a beginner : therefore, those parts absolutely necessary for the first reading ought to be rendered more prominent, by the use of a larger type. Lastly, the work ought to be confined entirely to its legitimate purpose — the instructing of beginners ; not de- viating into ingenious metaphysical and etymological dis- cussions, however interesting in their proper place : nor 11 PREFACE. should it be over-crowded with superfluous paradigms of Verbs, &c., so as to swell up the volume to an imdue extent. If this criterion of a good elementary Grammar is sound, which I think few men of sense will dispute, then there is ample room for the present little work, however imperfect in execution, as the first attempt of the kind that has yet been made in this country, with regard to the Persian language. Let it not be supposed, that because this book is small in bulk it must necessarily be superficial and imperfect : y^ \^::.,.jkXM Ji^ d-^lw to-^ ai. On the contrary, I am con- vinced that the student will here find all the information of any consequence contained in larger volumes, and a great deal which they do not contain. I have endeavoured throughout the work to enlarge upon those i)arts of the subject which I have observed to be most needed by beginners. Such parts of the Grammar of the Persian language as agree with our own, or with that of European languages in* general, I have passed over with the utmost brevity. The only work on the subject to which I am under any obligation is the Persian Grammar of Dr. Lums- den, Calcutta, 1810, in two folio volumes. From this valuable work I have extracted many a pearl, though it must be confessed, I was obliged often to dive through an enormous mass of water to procure it. Still, with all its metaphysics and verbosity. Dr. Lumsden's Grammar ought to be perused by every one who wishes to acquire a thorough knowledge of the Persian language. It is indeed a pity that the Work should not be reprinted in this country : it would form two octavo volumes ; and, when printed in our elegant types, and on good paper, it would not look nearly so formidable and repulsive as it does in its present state. The Selections for Reading, appended to the Grammar, consist of one hundred anecdotes, commencing with the PREFACE. HI shortest and easiest. The first seventy of them have the short vowels and the symbol ya;?w marked in foil; and in the remainder the marks have been omitted, except in the case of an izafaty or when there might arise an am- biguity from the omission. I have, throughout the Selec- tions, given a species of punctuation, which the reader will find very serviceable. The d ^1 • be • b * -*f • • • ft A • JV« ••V pe r P V ^'i 4-> V * .;*-- • J^ Li te ** 4 t •• JCI ^3 ^J^ c >» 86 A. s ^A^ Jii >5 ^JL> • A A r*!r jim ?L • J t ♦ • a / A • ij«- «• che Z ch t V ?- c^ ^ ^ «• he C h t * «- ^ G?^ >■ J^ • khe • kh t • • C^ & ^ • jis ddl 3 d j> vX ^ iU, J^a loi Jib zal • 3 z • • • 3 • j«li > "/J re J r ^J ^rj J > J* C IV y ^ 0^ * JO c * ^i^*» • sin (j*» s LT M* ij»V {J^ ^ ui^ shin (> sh A A -J» o^V U^ JCIJ Js^ ^\jO sad u« s U^ 1 1 JO f^jo\j & sJoa5 vX^ THE PERSI-ARABIC ALPHABET— c(m/m««rf. L II. m. DETACbED FORM. IV. POWER. V. COMBINED FORM. VI. EXEMPLIFICATIONS. NAMS. Final. Med. Initial FiDal. Medial. Initial. ala zdd U« js: «• zoe 1p z k k 1^ ki^ > > ui^ din e: a,^c. ^ H p- ^Lo ^JUO (Ji^ ghdin gh • i"^ 2r» ••• J-fr • (J •• f^ » ■ f • A * 5 ciK uiT Jui • • u» kdf •* k L A 5 ^'^ U^ ** J^ ^\^ kaf c^ k <^ s: r c^li. c^ ^ <^ cjlf g^f c^ g ^ f f c4 C^j > x* / r^ lam J I J 1 3 JU J^ r^ ^. mtm r m r ^^ <0 ^W cr^ cr* ciy nun CJ n c:; • * **- ^i • 1^ j!^ waw J w, Sfc. ^ ^ J ^ ^ he 2 h & t4 ib ^u ^L3 1 l*- ^ >* —•* ye Lf •* yM- -^« Jo •• Note, The learner will observe, that the letters 1, t), ^yj* Jyjf and^ do not alter in shape, whether Initial, Medial, or Final. Another peculiarity which they have, is, that they never unite with the letter following, to the left. The letters t and t , in like manner, do not alter, but they always unite with the letter following on the left hand. 4 OF THE FERSI-ABABIC ALPHABET. 2. Perhaps the best mode of learning the Alphabet^ is^ First, to write out several times the detached or fiill forms of the letters in Column III. Secondly, to observe what changes (if any) these undergo, when combined in the formation of words, as exhibited in Column V. Lastly, to endeavour to transfer, into their corresponding English letters, the words given as exemplifications in Column VI. 3. In the foregoing Table, most of the letters are suflB- ciently represented by the corresponding English letters ; (the sound of the characters ^ ch and (^ sh being the same as in the word Cheshire,) it will be necessary therefore merely to notice those that slightly differ from our own pronunciation, which are the following : C^ The sound of this letter is softer and more dental than that of the English t : it corresponds with the t of the Gaelic dialects, or that of the Italians in the word sotto. It corresponds with the Sanskrit ?T . ^ is sounded by the Arabs like our th hard, in the words tkicky thin ; but by the Persians and Indians it is pronounced like our s in the words skky sin. flr- is a very strong aspirate, somewhat like our h in the word hmdy but uttered by compressing the lower muscles of the throat. ^ has a sound like the ch in the word lochy as pro- nounced by the Scotch and Irish ; or the final German cA, in the words schach and Imch. 3 is more dental than the English d : the former is the Sanscrit ^, the latter is nearer the 5- The d of the Celtic OF THE 1»£RSI-ARABIC ALPHABET. O dialects, and of the Italian and Spanish, corresponds with the Persian 3 . b is properly sounded like our th soft, in the words thy and thine ; but in Persia and India it is generally pro- nounced like our z in zeal. J is pronounced like the j of the French, in the word jour, or our z in the word azure. Kjo has a stronger or more hissing sound than our s. In Persia and India, however, there is little or no dis- tinction between it and (j** . KJ^ is pronounced by the Arabs like a hard d or dh; but in Persia and India it is sounded like z. m j^ and *> . These letters are sounded, in Persian, like C-> and J , or very nearly so. The anomalous letter ^ will be noticed hereafter. 9^ has a sound somewhat like g in the German word sagen. About the banks of the Tweed, the natives sound what they fancy to be the letter r, very like the Eastern ^ . (jf bears some resemblance to our c hard, in the words cakifty cup; with this difference, that the (Jf is uttered from the lower muscles of the throat. w is sounded like our g hard, in give, go; never like our g in gem, gentk. (^ at the beginning of a word or syllable is sounded like our n in the word now: at the end of a, word, when preceded by a long vowel, it sometimes has a nasal sound, like the French n, in such words as mon and son, where o OF THE PERSI-ABABIC ALPHABET. the effect of the n is to render the vowel nasal, while its own sound is scarcely perceptible. 2f is an aspirate, like our A in handy heart ; but at the end of a word, if preceded by the short vowel a (Fatha, §• 4.), the 2f has no sensible sound, as in a3u dana, ^^a grain"; in which case it is called ^^^^^ (S^ KcLe-^mukhtafty i. e. the A, obscure or imperceptible. a. At the end of words derived from Arabic roots, this letter is frequently marked with two dots, thus, £; and sounded like the letter i2J t In such words, when introduced into their language, the Persians generally convert the i into iZ^; but sometimes they leave the i unaltered ; and frequently they omit the two dots, in which case the letter is sounded according to the general rule. 3. Much more might have been said in describing the sounds of several of the letters ; but we question much whether the learner would be greatly benefited by a more detailed description. It is difficult, if not impossible, to give, in writing, a correct idea of the mere soimd of a letter, unless we have one that corresponds with it in our own language. When this is not the case, we can only have recourse to such languages as happen to possess the requisite sound. It is possible, however, that the student may be as ignorant of these languages as of Persian. It clearly follows, then, as a general rule, that the correct sounds, of such letters as differ from our own, must be learned by the ear — ^we may say, by a good ear ; and, con- sequently, a long description is needless. This remark applies in particular to the letters C-> ^ ^ 3 9' (jS and the nasal (^ • ( 7 ) OF THE PRIMITIVE VOWELS. 4. The Primitive Vowels in Arabic and Persian are three, which are expressed by the following simple nota- tion. The first is called A^ fathay and is written thus, — over the consonant to which it belongs. Its sound is that of a short a, such as we have in the word calamus^ which is of Eastern origin, and of which the first two syllables or root, coHam or kalamy are thus written, m^ . Dr. Gilchrist, and several eminent Oriental scholars, have considered the fatha as equivalent to our short u in the words suriy shun. We have no hesitation, however, in saying, from our own experience, that our short u is not generally a true repre- sentation o/i fatha. In pronouncing the short u of sun^ the mouth is more shut than in pronouncing the a in the words calamus and calendar ; and it so happens, that the very signification of the term fatha is, ^ open.^ In such Oriental words as we may have occasion to write in Roman cha- racters, the a, unmarked, is understood always to repre- sent the vowel /afAa, and to have no other sound than that of a in calamus or calendar. 6. The second is called ka^sra ^j^y and is thus -^r written under the consonant to which it belongs. Its sound is generally that of our short i in the words sip and finy which in Persian would be written ^^^ and uj^* Occasionally it has a sound like our short e in the words bed and fedy which words would be most nearly repre- sented in Persian as vX^ and vX3. In India, the kasra has always the sound of our short % : the unmarked ^ therefore. 8 OF THE PRIMITIVE VOWELS. in the course of this work, is understood to have the sound of i in ^ and /n, in all Oriental words written in the Roman character. 6. The third is called zamma or dhamma Ks^^jo), which is thus — written over its consonant. Its sound is like that of our short u in the words ptdl and ptishy which in Persian would be written ^J^. and ^j**^ : we have its sound also in the words foot and hoody which would be written C-*3 and <^. Sometimes the zamma has a sound ap- proaching our short o in the word solemn; and the word c JL gofty instead of gufty is sometimes heard with this sound. We shall, however, represent the zamma by the unmarked Uy which, in all Oriental words in the Roman character, is understood to have the sound of u in pull and push; but never that of our u in such words as use and perfvmey or such as sun and fun. In Persian, the three short vowels are also called zahaVy zeVy pesky respectively. OF THE CONSONANTS 1, ^, j, AND ^. 7. At the beginning of a word or syllable, the letter » > like any other consonant, depends for its S9und on the accompanying vowel : of itself, it is a very weak aspirate, like our h in the words herhy honowy and hour. It is still more closely identified with the spiritus lenis of the Greek, in such words as aTo, Iv), o§6og. In fact, when we utter the syllables aby iby and uby there is a slight movement of the muscles of the throat at the commencement of utterance ; and that movement the Oriental grammarians OF THE . CONSONANTS. consider to be the jy^ makhraj, or utterance of the consonant 1, as in ' a, \ 2, and ' w, just the same as the lips form the makhraj of 6, in the syllables ^ bd, Sr^ bi, and s-^ bu. Finally, the ' may be considered as the spiritus knisy or weak aspirate of the letter 3. 8. The consonant ^ has the same relation to the strong aspirate ^ that \ has to 2f ; that is, the ^, like the i, is a spintus lenis or weak aspirate ; but the makhraj, or place of utterance of ^ , is in the lower muscles of the throat. With this distinction, its sound, as in the case of the letter » , depends on the accompanying vowel, as c-^ aJ, C-.AP 'iJ, c-*^ 'uby which, in the mouth of an Arab, are very different sounds from v— >i aJ, ^\ iby and s-^i ub. At the same time, it is impossible to explain in writing the true sound of this letter ; as it is not to be found in any Euro- ropean language, so far as we know. The student who has not the advantage of a competent teacher may treat the 9 as he does the ' until he has the opportunity of learning its true sound by the ear. 9. Of the consonants j and (^ very little description is necessary. The letter j has generally the sound of our w in wCy went The modern Persians, particularly those bordering on the Turks, pronounce the j like our v, as in the words ^-y-*^ shavam or, more nearly, skevem, and (Si^ shaviy which in Eastern Persia and India are pronounced shawam and shawi. The sound of the consonant (^ is exactly our own y in youy yety or the German j in jener. 10 OF THE CONSONANTS. 10. It appears, then, that the thirty-two letters constitating the Persian Alphabet are all to be considered as consonants j each of which may be uttered with any of the three primitive vowels, as v^^ 6a, v^ W, and «— > bu: hence the elementary sounds of the language consist of ninety-six syllables, each consonant forming three distinct syllables. When a consonant is accompanied by one of the three primitive vowels, it is said to be ^J^ mutaharrik^ that is, nwvingy or moveable^ by that vowel. Oriental gram- marians consider a syllable as a step or move in the formation of a word or sentence. In Persian and Arabic, the first letter of a word is always accompanied, or moveable, by a vowel. With regard to the following letters there is no certain rule. When, in the middle or end of a word, a consonant is not accompanied by a vowel, it is said to be ^j;^^^ 5a Am, resting or inert. Thus, in the word i^y^ mardum the rmrn is moveable by fatha; the re is inertly having no vowel ; the ddl is moveable by zamma; and, finally, the mm is inert. The mark -^ or — , called (^jazmy is placed oyer a consonant, to' shew when it is inerty as in the word mardum^ where the j (r) and final /♦ (m) are inert. As a general rule, the last letter of a Per- sian word is always inert; hence it is not necessary to mark * I ought to apologize for the employing of this novel term here. In most Persian and Arabic Grammars, a letter not followed by a vowel is called quiescent : now, I object to the latter term, as it is apt to mislead the beginner, it being already applied in English Grammar in the sense of 710^ sounded. For instance, the letter ff is quiescent in the word phlegm ; we cannot, however, say -that m is quiescent in the same word, though we may say that it is inert The student will be pleased to bear in mind, then, that a letter is said to be inert when it is not followed by a vowel. OF THE LETTERS OF PROLONGATION. H the last letter of a word with the jazm. When a letter is doubled, the mark ^, called tashdid^ is placed over it. Thus, in the word CjS^ shid-dat, where the first syllable ends with 3 (d) and the next begins with 3 (d), instead of the usual mode C->^*X^, the two dais are united, and the mark -H- indicates this union. , OF THE LETTERS OF PROLONGATION, I , j , AND ^ . 11. The letters Ij j> and 45, when inert, serve to prolong the preceding vowel, as follows. When I inert is preceded by a letter moveable by fdtha, the fatha and aUf together form a long sound like our a in war, or au in haidy which in Persian might be written jj^ and J^- Now it so happens, that the I inert is always preceded by fatha : - hence, as a general and practical rule, alzf not beginning a word or syllable forms a sound like our a in fvar, or au in haid. On a similar principle, we may consider the unaspirated A as a letter of prolongation in the German words wahr and zaJd. We may also consider the second a as inert in the words aachen and waai. 12. When the letter j inert is preceded by a conso- nant moveable by the vowel zamma, the zamma and j together form a sound like our 00 in tool; which in Persian might be written Jjj^, or, which is the same thing, like our u in rwfc, which the Persians would write \j^j. The same combination forms also another sound, like our in moky which they would write JJ^, or, perhaps still nearer, like our oa in coat, which they would write "^jy. In the Arabic language, the latter sound of j , viz. that of in 12 OF THE LETTERS OF PROLONGATION. mdley is unknown; hence grammarians eall it Majfud^ or 'Ajamty i.e. the Unknown or Persian j ; whereas the former ^ sound, that of w in rwfe, is called Ma'riif, the Known or Familiar j . If the letter j be preceded by a consonant moveable by fatha, the /atha and j united will form a diphthong, nearly like our au in sound, or cw in towuj but more exactly like the au in the German word kaumy which in Persian or Arabic might be written /^. If the j be preceded by the vowel kasra, no union takes place, and the J preserves its ^ atural sound as a consonant, as in the word ]y^ siwa. Itt English, the w is a letter of prolon- gation in many words, as drawy crow, &c.; it also con- tributes to the formation of a diphthong, as in tawny gowny &c, a. When the letter . is preceded by ^ moveable hj/atheif and followed by I , the sound of • is scarcely perceptible ; as in the word ^1^5 pronounced kkdhamy not khawaham. This rule, however, applies only to words purely Persian; never to those borrowed from the Arabic language, which are very numerous. b. In like manner, when • preceded by • moveable by fcEthoj and sometimes by zamma or kdzroy is followed by any of the letters u-^, *^>jyJ9 Ljr> lj*> u* ^» ^^ t^> *^® 5 occasionally loses its usual sound, as in the word O*^, pron. khad, not khaud or khawad; 80 in i>^, pron. khud, not khud; also in (h1ju^» pron. kMshy not khiwesh. This rule also applies only to words purely Persian ; and, as it is by no means general, the student must ascertain the pronun- ciation in such cases from a Dictionary of standard authority ; such as Professor Johnson's edition of Richardson, 4to. London, 1329. \h. When the letter cf inert is preceded by a conso- c OF THE LETTERS OF PROLONGATION. 13 nant moveable by ktzsray the kasra and the (S unite, and form a long vowel, like our ee in feel^ which in Persian might be written ^j4^ ; or, which is the same thing, like our i in macMney which in Persian would be written -i-o. The same combination may also form a sound like our ea in heaVy which would be written^^, or like the French e in the words fete and fete; or the German e followed by h in the words sehr, gelehrt. In the Arabic language, the latter sound of iS is unknown : hence, when the lS forms the sound of ea in beavy &c., it is called Yde Majhuly or yae ^Ajamt, that is, the Unknown or Persian C5; whilst the former sound — that of ee mfeely or i in machine — is called Yde Ma'rufy the Known or Familiar cf • When the letter iS inert is preceded by a consonant, moveable hyfathay ihe/atha and the iS unite, and form a diphthong, like ai in the German word Kaisevy which in Arabic and Persian is written^;^^^^^^ . This sound is really that of our own i in wisey sizey which we are pleased to call a vowel, but which, in reality, is a genuine diphthong. When the cf restant is preceded by zamnuiy no union takes place, and the cf retains its usual sound as a conso- nant, as in the wordj-iJ^* muyassar. In English, the letter ^ is a letter of prolongation in the words say and key; it also contributes to the formation of a diphthong in the word bm/y which in Persian might be written ^ . •* ♦ 14. It appears, then, from what we have stated, that the Persian language has ten vocal sounds; viz. 1st, Three short or prinUtive vowels, as in the syllables Jo bM; Jo bid; Ju bud, pronounced bood. 2dly, Three d)rre- 14 OF THE LETTERS OF PROLONGATION. spending long vowels, formed by introducing the homo- geneous letters of prolongation immediately after the preceding short vowels, as in 3u bad, Osx} bid, J>aJ bud. 3dly, Two diphthongs, as in vXiJ baid, the at pronounced like our i in abide ; and ^^ baudy the au pronounced like our ou in loud. 4thly, The two long vowels, peculiarly Persian, or Majhul, as JI^ bSl, pronounced like the En- glish word bail, andjjij rdz, pronounced very nearly like the English word rose. 15. It must be observed, that there are very few Persian works, manuscript or printed, in which all the vowels are marked as we have just described. The primitive short vowels are almost always omitted, as well as the marks ^jazm and Jil tashdid; nor is the omission of any conse- quence to the natives and those who know the language. To the young beginner, however, in this country, it is essential to commence with books having the vowels care- fully marked ; otherwise, he will contract a vicious mode of pronunciation, which he will find it difficult afterwards to unlearn. At the same time, it is no easy matter in printing to insert all the vowel-points &c. in a proper and accurate manner. In the present work, a medium will be observed, which, without ever crowding the text with marks, will suffice Ho enable the learner to read with- out any error, provided he will attend to the following rules. 16. In the first place, — ^the last letter of every word (as already mentioned, §.10.) is inert: hence the mark OF THE LETTERS OF PROLONGATION. 15 ±-jazm is in that case dispensed with : when there is an exception to this rule, as in the formation of the genitive case, the last letter will be marked with the requisite vowel. Secondly, the letters ', j, and (^, not initial, are generally inert ; hence, they are not in such cases marked with ihejazm : whenever J and c^*, not initial, are moveable consonants, they are marked with the requisite vowels. Thirdly, to distinguish between the majhut and ma'ruf sounds of J and (^, the following rule is observed. When J and (^ follow a consonant, unmarked by a short vowel or jazniy they are understood to have the majhul sound, or that of and e respectively, as in jy^ mory " an ant," and jtS*^ sheTy ^^ a lion." If, on the other hand, the consonant preceding j have the vowel -^, and that preceding iS «• the vowel — , they have the ma'ruf sound, or that ofuin rule and i in machine respectively, as in the words ^^ sudy ^^gain," andjJk^, shtry "milk": and if the preceding consonant be marked with jazniy J and c5 are consonants. Fourthly, the short vowel /atha -^ is of more frequent occurrence than the other two: hence it is omitted in the printing; and the learner is to supply it for every consonant except thfe last, provided he see no other vowel, nor the mark jazm accompanying any of the consonants aforesaid. The vowel fatha is written before the letters j and (S when they form diphthongs, as in (^ kauniy " a tribe," sxidji^ sair (pronounced like the English word sire)y " a walk." According to this method, the ten vocal sounds will be uniformly represented as follows, both in the Persian text, and in such Persian words as we may have occasion to write in Roman 16 OF THE LETTERS OF PROLONGATION. characters. 1st, Three short vowels,^ bar, ^^ bin sur. 2dly, Three corresponding long, jy bar, ujjO bin, jy^ sur. 3dly, Two diphthongs, ^;Xyj scUr, ^^ kaum. 4thly, The two sounds called Mqjhuly not used in Arabic, J>t> bel,jjj r6ss. 17. The letters I and ^ beginning a word or syllable, form, according to our notions, an initial vowel ; although the Orientals deny the possibility of such a thing : thus — i\ ■ i\\ or :>\ Jo) ^,1 . Jo\ 4; Jo\ ^j^ ad id • ud; ad Id ud ; aid or. aud; ed od ; a& ^^' 'ad 'id 'ud; *ad Id 'ud ; 'aid. 'aud. Instead of writing two alifs at the beginning of a word, as in -^n ady it is usual (except in Dictionaries) to write one alif with the other curved over it ; thus, ^ . This symbol — is called ^vXo madduy " extension," and denotes that the aMf is sounded long, like our a in water. a. The learner will recoUect, that the sounds commencing with c must be uttered with the lower muscles of the throat In other respects he may view the I and & in any of the three following lights. Ist, He may consider them of the same value as the spiriius lenis (') in such Greek words as dv, ev, &c. 2dly, He may consider them as equivalent to the letter h in the English words hxmr, herb, honour, &c. Lastly, be may consider them as mere blocks, where- upon to place the vowels requisite to the formation of the syllable. Practically speaking, tben, I and c when initiaU and ^ and ^ when not initial, require the beginner's strictest attention, as they all contribute in such cases to the formation of several sounds. OF THE SYMBOL HAMZA. H 6. It further appears, that when, in Persian, a word or syllable begins with what we consider to be a vowel, such words or syllables must have the letter I or & to start with. Throughout this work, when we have occasion to write such words in the Roman character, the corresponding place of the c will be indicated by an apostrophe or spirUus lenis ; thus, Jmac ''asaly Jjlc ^abid^ a^ 6a'(/, to distinguish the same from JumI osqI^ c^ abidj jj badj d\} bad. 18. When one syllable of a word ends with a vowel, and, according to our ideas of orthography, the following syllable begins with, a vowel, that is, virtually, with an \ in Persian, the mark -^ (sometimes ^) ham%a is used instead of the \ ; thus, /|l> pd-e, instead of (^i\$ ; 2fv>5vd fa-idah, instead of 2f3]U. a. The sound of the mark hamza^ according to the Arabian Grammarians, differs in some degree from the letter I, being some- what akin to the letter C) which its shape ^ would seem to warrant; but in Persian this distinction is overlooked. According to the strict rule, the hamza ought to be used whenever a syllable, beginning with a vowel, is added to a root, in the way of inflexion or derivation, as j>j JjtJ didem, " we saw,'''' from ,yj() ; f/Jyj bad-if ** badnessy^ from jj bad ; but this rule is seldom or never observed. Practically speaking, then, in Persian the hamza in the middle of a word is nearly of the samd import as our hyphen (with which it may be represented in the Roman characters), in such words as re-operii which in the Persian character might be written ^Ji. At the end of words terminating with the imperceptible h «, or ^c, the hamza has the sound of e or i, long or short, as will be observed hereafter. +19. As words arid phrases from the Arabic laiiguage enter very freely into Persian composition, we cannot well D 18 OF THE ABABIC ARTICLE '•AL." omit the following remarks. Arabic nomis have frequently the definite article J^ (the) of that language prefixed to them ; and if the noim happens to begin with any of the thirteen letters, C^, vi>, ^, ^' jO' U**' U*^' ^-^' ^' )oy)by or [^y the \J of the article assumes the sound of the initial letter of the noun, which is then marked with tashdid; thus, jyJl the lights pronounced an-nuru, not cd-nuru. But in these instances, although the J has lost its own soimd, it must always be written in its own form. Of course, when the noun begins with J, the J of the article coincides with it in like manner, as in the words sX^\ al-laUatu, '^ the night" ; and in this case the J of the article is some- times omitted, and the initial lam of the noun marked by tashdidy as &)aJt al-laUatu. a. We have already noticed (page 6) the anomalous character i, which is common in Arabic derivatives, and sounded like the letter CL^, into which it is often changed in Persian* The thirteen letters, iZJ &c., above mentioned, together with the letter J, are, by the Arabian Grammarians, called solar or sunny letters, because, for- sooth, the word ^M^^yft shams, <^the snn,'' happens to begin with one of them. The other letters of the Arabic alphabet are called lunar, because, we presume, the word^^ kamar ^^the moon" begins with one of the number, or simply because they are not solar. Of course, the captious critic might find a thousand equally valid reasons for caUing them by any other term, such as gold and silvery black and blue, &c. ; but we merely state the fact as we find it. + 20. In general, the Arabic nouns of the above descrip- tion, when introduced into the Persian language, are in a state of construction with another substantive which OF THE SYMBOLS WA8LA AND TANWIN. 19 precedes them ; like our Latin terms ^'jus gentium^' ^^ vis inerti(Sy' &c. In such cases^ the last letter of the first or governing word is moveable by the vowel zamma, which serves for the enunciation of the I following ; and, at the same time, the 1 is marked with the symbol — , called &Ldj wasUy to denote such union ; as in the words Ujy^J^'jttt' Amir-'Ul'mumimn, "Commander of the Faith- ful ;" idjM\ JU5) Ikhalrud-daula, " The dignity of the state." a. Arabic nouns occasionally occur in Persian having their final letters marked with the symbol called tanwin, which signifies the using of the letter ^. The tanwm, which in Arabic grammar serves to mark the inflexions of a noun, is formed by doubling the vowel-point of the last letter, which indicates at once its presence and its sound ; thus, L^b babun^ L^b babin, bb baban. The last form requires the letter I, which does not, however, prolong the sound of the final syllable. The I is not required when the noun ends with a hamza or the letter S, as ^Ji, shai-arif iuX»- hikmatan ; or when the word ends in Ac ya^ surmounted by I (in which case the I only is pronounced), as J^tXfc hudan. In words ending in ^^, sur- mounted by I , without the tanwin or nunation, the alif is sounded like the a2j^ of prolongation, as IJbo ta'aldy J^ ^ukbd, &c. - 21. The eight letters, wt^? ^? ijo, ;jo, L, lb, 6 , and ^y are peculiar to the Arabic language : hence, as a general rule, a word containing any one of these letters may be considered as borrowed from the Arabic: and should it include the long vowels J or c5*, they cannot have the majhul sound, except it be the lS (e) of unity (of which more hereafter) added at the end. The four letters \^y ^, J , and L^y are not used in the Arabic language : hence, a • 20 EXERCISES FOB BEADING AND WBinNG. word in which any one of them occurs may be considered as purely Persian. The remaming twenty letters are com- mon to both languages. The three following Stories are intended as an Exercise in Reading and Writing for the Learner. The first is given hoth in the Persian and Roman characters. The second is given in the Pe):sian character alofiie ; and the Learner is to turn the same into the corresponding English letters. The third is in the Roman character ; which the Student, by a little attention to all that has preceded) ought to turn into the proper Persian character. It is essential that he should be able to read the latter fluently, before he proceeds further with this work. A Literal Translation is added to each. Before commencing, however, the Learner had better reconsider all that has gone before, and be sure that he thoroughly recoUects the meaning of the following symbols : -^, -7-, .£., ji_, ji_, JL, I and I, as well as the different sounds which 19^,^ and 1^ contribute to form. STORY L %-* * THE SAME IN ROHAN CHARACTERS. Roze Khusru Parwiz ki Shirin zauja-i mahbiiba-i biid, guft, khush chize ast Id badshahi da*im biide. Shirin guft, agar da-im bude batd naraside. TRANSLATION. One day, Khusru Parwiz, whose beloved wife was Shirin, said, "What a pleasant thing it were if Royalty were everlasting!'^ « ■i.< K Ik' I ' EXERCISES FOR READING AND WRITING. 21 W I Shiiin said, " If it had been everlasting, it would not have come / ^ 1 " to thee." V\* N.B. Observe, that the final X (vide p. 6) in the words a^. »-^l, &c«, having no perceptible sound, is omitted in the Roman character. ■* * \l "•* STORY II. — TO BE TURNED INTO THE ROMAN. CHARACTER. ,t Uj^ »m • ^ ~ ^ ^ 4^ y 4^ ^ l.«^ — CM«»\sr «jU. t,.,.*>U> &£9 vX'tjf^ 2L5CjU^ -^ ^ Kj \* \* ^^ — v>i1 «JLi, ^oU*« ,*-X*i6\sff /j^ Ui^ «^= "^y^ c c j^) v^ '-:^**^— *^' «J^^ tyjj^ '■^^^ iJi^* TRANSLATION. A man went, for the purpose of seeing a certain person, to his house, at the time of the midday meal. That person, in his own house, saw this man coming. He said to his servants, ^^ When he asks where the master of the house is, you will say that he is now gone to dine with some one." In the mean while, the man having arrived, asked, "Where is the master of the house?" They siud. 22 EXERCISES FOE EEADIN6 AND WBITING. ^^He is just this moment gone out." The man said, "A rare fool he is, to have gone out of his house at such a sultry hour." The master of the house, putting his head out of the window, sidd, ^^ You are a fool, to wander ahout at this time. I am comfortably reposing in my own house." STORY III. — ^TO BE TURNED INTO THE PERSIAN CHARACTER. Dihkane khare dasht Az sababi bekhaiji, khar ra bara-e charidan babaghe sar midad. Mardumani bagh khar ra mizadand wa, az zara at ba dar mikardand. Roze dihkan posti sher ra bar khar bast wa guft "wakti shab bara-e charidan tu bar a-i, wa, awaz makun.^ Hamchunan bar shab ba posti sher an khar babagh miraft. Hark! ba shab midid^yakin midanist ki in sher ast. Shabe baghban ora did, wa az tars bar bala-e darahkte raft. Dar asna-e an, khare digar ki dar an nazdiki bud awaz kard, wa khari dihkan niz ba awaz dar amad, wa bang.zadan misli kharan girift. Baghban ora shinakht wa danist ki in kist. Az darakht farod «mad, wa an khar ra bisyar lat bazad. Az inja khiradmandan gufta and ki ^^ kharan ra khamoshi bib." TRANSLATION. A certain villager had an ass, which, for the sake of economy, he used to let loose in a certain garden, for the purpose of grazing. The people of the garden used to beat the beast, and drive him from the cultivated ground. One day, the villager &stened a lion's skin on the ass, and said (so goes the story) : << At the time of night, you go forth to graze, and do not make a noise.'' Even so, every night, in, the lion''s skin, the ass used to go into the garden: whoever saw him by night, used to think for certain that it wats a lion. One night the gardener ^w him, and from fear he went up into a tree. In the mean time, another ass, which was in that neighbour^ hood, made a noise ; and the ass of the villager also raised his voice, and began to bray, just like any other donkey* The gardener recognised him, and knew what he was. He came down from the tree, and gave the ass a sound beating with a stick. — On this subject the wise have said, '^ For the ass's silence is best." NUMERICAL VALUE OF THE LETTERS 23 In turning the preceding story into the Persian character, the student will observe, that t, s, z, k and A, are to be turned into ci^, ^j*., J, c3 and Sby respectively ; the exceptions being the A: of dihkan, which is r, and the s ofmisli, which is cij. The combinations chj khi shi and ghj are ^ » -f- > i/* » *^d d , respectively. He will of course attend to the iniltah medial^ and final forms of the letters, according to circumstances. Let him also remember, that every letter must be joined in the same word to the one following it on the left, except I, 4>, ^fjyjfjf and ^; after any of which there is a blank, and the next letter is of the initial form* +22. We may here mention, that the twenty-eight letters of the Arabic language are also used (chiefly in recording the dates of historical events) for the purpose of Numerical computation. The Numerical order of the Letters, however, in this case, differs from that given in the Alphabet ; being, in fact, the identical arrangement of the Hebrew, so far as the lattei: extends, viz. to the letter O, 400. The following is the order of the Numerical Alphabet with the corresponding number placed above each letter ; the whole being grouped into eight unmean- ing words, to serve as a memoria technica. o oSS oSS S ooo oooo . oooo where t denotes one, v^ two^ ^ three, i four, &c. a. In reckoning, by the preceding system, the four letters peculiaVly Persian (21), viz. u^^ -_, j and li/, have the same value as their pognate Arabic letters of which they are modifications, that is, of i«j, 'Tf j> ^^^ ^f respectively. The mode of recording any event is, to form a brief sentence, such„ that the numerical values of 24 PRINCIPAL KINDS OP HAND-WRTTING/ all the letters, when added together, amount to the year (of the Hijri) in which the event took place. Thus, the death of Ahli of Shiraz, who may be considered as the last of the Classic Poets of Persia* happened in A. H. 942. This date is recorded in the sentence Jlftl 4>y t^ sltt>U^ i.e. ^^Ahli was the king of poets;** which at the same time contains a high compliment to the merits of the deceased. The foUowing date, on the death of the renowned Hyder Ali of Maisur (A.H. 1196), is equally elegant, and much more poetic. The reader will bear in mind that Bdlaghat, is the scene of one of Hyder's most celebrated rictories ; hence the appropriateness of the following well-chosen expression : " The spirit of Balaghat is gone.'' b. In Arabia and Persia, the art of printing is as yet very little used : hence their books, as was once the case in Europe, are written in a variety of different hands. Of these, the most common ^ • . are, Ist, the Naskhi L^ae***^> of which the type employed in the two Stories, pages 20 and 21, is a very good imitation. Most Arabic Manuscripts, and particularly those of the Koran, are in this hand ; and from its compact form, it is generally used in Europe for printing books in the Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Hindustani languages. 2dly, The TdUk ^^Aj6 , a beautifril hand, used chiefly by the Persians in disseminating copies of their more-esteemed authors. In India, the Ta'lik has been extensively employed for printing, botl^ in Persian and Hindustani; and within the last twenty years, a few Persian works, in the same hand, have issued from the Pasha of Egypt's press at Bulak. 3dly, The Shikasta Awvmi, or broken hand, which is used in correspondence. It is quite irregular, and unadapted for printing ; but not inelegant in appear- ance, when properly written. For a more ample account of this subject, see "Essai de Calligraphie Orientale," in the Appendix to Herbin's " Developpements des Principes de la Langue Arabe," 4to. Paris, 1803. ( 25 ) SECTION IL ON SUBSTANTIVES, ADJECTIVES, AND PRONOUNS. 23. It is considered by the Grammarians of Arabia and Persia that there are only Three Parts of Speech — the C C Noun j^\ Ism, the Verb ,Jje Fi7, and the Particle Harf. Under the term Noun, they include Substantives,, Adjectives, Pronouns, Participles, and Infinitives : their Verb agrees in its nature with ours ; and their Particle includes Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter- jections. a. In the present work we shall of course adhere to that division of the Parts of Speech which is followed in the Latin Grammar, with which the Student is supposed to be acquainted. OF gei4der. 24. In the Persian language, the Gender of Nouns agrees exactly with that of the same Part of Speech in English ; males being masculine, females feminine, and all other words neuter. a. Animals have either different names to express male and fe- male ; as, j^ fisar^ " a son"; J^^ dukktarj " a daughter'* : or the terms ^ nar (male), and 5^U mada (female), added or prefixed, serve the same purpose; as, J^ sher-i-naVi "a lion," »^U>2i sheri^ tnadot "a lioness"; so, .\^ nar-gdw, "a bull," j\?5^U mada-gaw, " a cow/' FORMATION OF THE PLURAL NUMBER 25. In Persian there are two Numbers — ^the Singular and the Plural. As a general rule. Masculines and Femi- . E 26 FORMATION OF PLUBALS. nines form the Plural, by adding (j » an to the Singular ; and inanimate objects, or Neuters, form the Plural, by adding \i^ hd; asjjy^^^jdnwar/^ammal/' pltur. (j^j^^V mnwardn ; y/^ chzz, " a thing,*' plur. ^ji^ chtzhd. a. This simple and general rnle is subject to some modification, which may beiexpressed as follows: — ^Names applicable to persons, and epithets d^seriptiy^ of rational beings, make the plural almost inyariably in ^j^\ ; as, ^ mard, ** man," pi. ^^^ marddn, " men'^ ; ^ zan, " a woman," pL ^\S: xanaUy •' women" ; *u.*^^ J^ dil-firebf " an allurer of hearts,* pL ^U^ J^ dU-firehan. Names of animals not rational, form the plural, generally, by adding ^\—} but often by \jb ; as, (..,,a*j3\ asp, ** a horse," pL ^bu4\ aspan $ Jws skutur, " a camel*" ^l"^ 9 9 pL mIj^ ihvi^titan^ or U^ shuturha, '* camels." Names of inanimate objects add U generally, sometimes ^\— ; as, JJ kalam^ ''a pen," pL \^ kalamha, ** pens" ; vl^> darakht, ** a tree," pL I^ap^^ darakhta, '* trees," and sometimes ^J^J^. b. When nouns ending in the obscure h t (page 6) have occasion to add ^\— » the s is converted into ^; as, gjixS firishioy *'an angel," /^ « . pi. .Vftjq/' firiaktagan, *' angels" : and sometimes the s is retained, .^^^ with the (; as, s^ ''dead," pi. ^\$9^. When such nouns haye occasion to add U, the final b of the singular disappears; as, ft^U nama, "a book or letter," pL \^\j namahd. When nouns ending in \ (a) or j (« or o) have occasion to add ^\ — , the letter ^tf (y) is inserted, to avoid a hiatus; as, \3b ddndf ** & sage," P^- i:)^.^^^ ddndydn; so,^<^ pari-ru, "fairy-faced," pL ^\j»J ^g^ pari-ruyan, ** the fairy-faced ones" : and sometimes, though rarely, the letter ^^ is omitted after j; as,j:b "the arm," pL mUjV ^^<^^^ or 6a2rutoan. GENITIVE CASE. 27 c. Arabic nouns sometimes fonn their plurals according to rules peculiar to that language) which will be briefly noticed in the Appendix. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 26. Persian Nouns undergo no change corresponding to the various Cases of the Greek and Latin. The term Case however is here retained^ as it forms the simplest means for explaining how the various relations of Sub- stantives are e^ressed in this language. The Oenitive or Possessive Case is formed by the juxta- position of two substantives ; where the regimen, or thing possessed^ comes always firsts having its final letter sounded with the vowel kasra (i) — called oiUij^a^^Xa^a-t Izdfat, '^The kasra of relationship^'; — thus, lli)U -«-^ ^ ^ ^ pisar^-malik, ^'The son of the king (filius regis)"" ; so (iiJ^j^ ^\m kitdb'i pisar-i malik] " The book of the son of the king {liber Jilii regis)." If the governing word ends in the long vowels 1 (a) or j {u or o), instead of these letters beinjg followed by the ka^^a (or short i), as above, the letter iS (majhul) with the mark hamza (§.18.) is used ; as, 3}* 4^ V^ po-c mard, '* The foot of the man ^' ; j^ L5L3J ^^ pisar, " The face of the boy.'' If the governing word ends with the obscure s (A), or the long vowel i^ (I or e\ the mark hamza, with the vowel kasra (expressed or understood) is used ; as, J^J^^wW khdna-i mard, '^ The house of the man '' ; \ij^ ^ ^^vo mafu-i daryd, '' The fish of the sea.'' 28 DATIVE, AND ACXJU8ATIVE. a. In English we form the Possessive Case in two ways; thus, *' The king^s son,^ or " The son of the king** : the latter mode agrees exactly with that of the Persian; and the vowel koira &c. (i &C.), added to the governing word in Persian, corresponds to the particle of in EngHsL Hence, in turning English into Persian, should a complex string of words related to each other in the geni- tive case occur, the student has, in the first place, to resolve the same in his mind into that form of the genitive case which is made by the particle of in Englbh ; then convert them into Persian in the very same order, inserting the proper marks of the izafat. Thus, to assume an extreme case, we shall suppose the student has to express in Persian, " The colour of the king of Iran^s horse's head/* Let him, in the first place, endeavour to express the pkdn meaning of the phrase in English, by the aid of the particle of alone ; thus, " The colour of the head of the horse of the king of Iran**: then the Persian will easily follow; as, ^S\ j\j5>3b t^y4\ -d i^^. rang-i sar-i anp-i bad-shah'i Iran ; the order being the same. 6. The words ^..^^lo sahtb^ denoting " possesisor,** and^ sar^ denoting '' source,** when united with another word, generally omit the Jeasra ; as, J^ ^..^^lo satub-dil, ** a sage** (homme d'esprit) ; so ^\fCjJi sar maya, " the source of wealth," or " capital in trade.** 27. Dative and Accusative, &c. — ^The syllable U is added to a noun, when it stands in that relation to a verb which corresponds with the Dative or Accusative of the Latin ; as, jOOi^uTijJ^J^* mardra kitab dddam (viro librum dedi), '^ I gave the book to the man''; (^^^ l)V^ aspra dldam (equum vidi), " I saw the horse'': but the Dative is fre- quently formed by the Preposition A^, instead of the affix \j ; and the Accusative is often the same as the Nominative, as will be more fully shewn in the Syntax. — The Vocative VOCATIVE, AND ABLATIVE. 29 is formed, as in English, by placing some Inteijection before the Nominative ; as, ^ ^1 Ai mard ! '' O man ! '' In poetry, and also in prose compositions denoting prayer or supplication, the Vocative is frequently formed by addmg i a to the Nominative ; as, "^^j^ bulbula ! '' O night- ingale ! '' 1X^*5^ dosta ! '' O friend ! ''— The Ablative is formed, as in English, by prefixing the Prepositions j» az, ''from'' or ''by/' j-3 dar, "in," &c., to the Nominative; as, ^j^ y CLZ mard J "from the man" ; w\>'j3 dar khana, '^ in the house." — The Cases of the Plural Number are formed exactly in the same way. 28. To conform with the mode of European Grammars, we shall add two examples of the Declension of a Persian Noun. 3}« Mard, " Man." SINGULAR. Nom. ^ mard; vir, man," **the man/' Gen.^y«-^ i-mard; riri," of man," &c. Dat. \j ^j^ mard-ra; viro, ** to ^man." Ace. \j ^jc mard-ra; virum, ^^man." Voc. ^j^fj\ ai mard; vir, " O man ! '* Abl. ^J^ az mard; viro, "from man." PLUaAL. ^^^ marddn ; viriy " men. »» t' »i ^^^ — i-mardon ; virorum*' of men. V {J^^j^ marddn-ra; viris, "to men." \j ^^^j^ mardan-ra ; viros, " men.'* ^\^ ^j\ ai marddn; viHy " O men ! " ^J^^J^ j^ az marddn; wm,**from men." * The symbol -j- before the Genitive Case merely indicates the place of the governing word, the last letter of which must have the vowel -r- (* or {ji)^ as explained in Sect 26. 30 ABTICLK. Nom. s^\)f kUab, 'a book,"* "the book. Gen. u->lir-;r- t-iW5ft,"ofabooL** D&t W^ kimb-ra, " to a book.* Ace ], V^ ki^Ihra, " the boot** Vocu-^UTt^^ £» *i/56/'0 book r AbL u^Ur:^ OiS him/* from a boc^** miGVLAB. FLVBAIi. ^^— ukitabha," KXXtoAa." \U^ Hfabkortu, "to bmAs." )}^^ ktmbJia-ra, " books." ^^llT^^t aikimbJia, '^O hooks r \^^j\ ozM^Aa/' from books.' 0. In. like maimer may be dedined every Substantive in the Persian language. The only questions are, in the first place, whether — , ^c, or *, will be used as the rign of the izdfat or Genitive Case; which is easily solved by the rule laid down in Sect 26; the choice depending on the last syllable of the preceding or governing word; and, secondly, whether ^\ or U is to be added in the plural, which is decided by a careful perusal of Sect 25. 29. In Persian, there is no word corresponding exactly to our Definite Article the ; so that common names, as y^ mardf may signify " man,'' or ^' the man,'' according to circumstances^ which the context will generally in- dicate. A common substantive in the singular number, however, is restricted to unity, by adding the lettter (^ (majhul) to it ; as, (^j^ mard-e, *' one man," or *^ a cer- tain man." a. The same letter, (^, added to nouns (plural as well as sin- gular), followed by the particle «^ indicating a relative clause pf a sentence, seems to have the effect of our definite article; thus, ^ "^ iS>\ fJ!JJ /^J^ ^y^ a/jjUy " The (or Those) persons who in ^ •• power are my superiors."" — Anwari Suhaili, Book III. So in the ADJECTIVES. 31 following passage from Sa'di's Gulistan, Book L : j.. j^^c^bf j^ - khana-^, "one house"; where the hamza has the same sound as the (^ which it represents. OF ADJECTIVES. 30. Persian Adjectives are indeclinable; and in con- struction^ they follow the substantives which they qualify ; at the same time^ the last letter of the substantive must have the kctsra -^ {or iS , ox ^) superadded^ as in the formation of the Genitive Case (§. 26.) : thus, ^HX^ ^j^ mard-i nek^ ^a, good man'^; jU^j^ ^umr-i damz, "a long life'* ; ^^ ^^j rS-e khvb^ ** a fair face'* ; >«v^ jbvij banda-e-wafaddrj '^a faithftil slave.** The only variation which Persian Adjectives undergo is that of comparison, in which respect they very much resemble the same part of speech in English. The Comparative Degree is formed regularly, by adding to the Positive the syllable •i> tar; and the Superlative, by adding uyij^ tarln: thus, H-J^ khub, '^fair,*' j^^ Jchub-tar, *' fairer/* c ^ Mij^^ khub-tarm, '' fairest** cu The terminations J and ^3 may be joined to the Adjective, 32 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. or written separately, at pleasure : thus, in the above example, we might write ji> UJU^ s^d ^^^ ^j^« 6. When an Arabic adjective occurs in Persian, it is compared c frequently in the preceding manner ; as, ^y^ " excellent,^ " more exceUent,^ &c. : but sometimes the comparison is effected as in Arabic ; thus, y^\ ''more or most excellent^ ; * and occasionally we meet with both forms united, asJLcJ\* When an adjective is used as a noun, it forms the plural in accordance with the sub- stantive represented; as, ^JS^ **the good,** ^oVj^ "^® fair,^'&c.; \jb^b ''things given,^ from the participle }^b ddda. OF PRONOUNS. 31, The Personal Pronouns are the foUowmg : SINGULAR. FBRS. NOMINATIVE. 1 <* r 1. /«^ tnan, i. 2. y tu, " thou. 9> "ahe. JVcjjf. ^J^ on, "it," "that." ACCUBATIVB & DATIVE. \y^ mara^ me, to me. ]^ tyrOy " thee, '* to thee.** ' him,'* " her,* or \f^^ waira, j '* to him," " to her.' \f\ anra, it, or to it ii^^ ora. •a » PLURAL. 1. U 9na, me. 2. L^ MMi»a, 'you." 3. JJi^\ e«A5n,|"they,"or JVcd^. l^\ anha^ J " those." \j. US, to us. I V.^ you, to yoa ^lli\ ) " them," " to them." " those," " to those." w^ 1 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 33 a. The inflection of the personal pronouns differs in no respect from that of nouns ; the words \y« and \3 heing clearly contractions of Uxc and VjJ. They all form the Genitive Case, like the suh- stantives, hy placing the governing word, with the sign of the izafaJt^ before the nominatives (sing, or plur.) of the pronouns ; as, ^ J Jj padar-i man, ** my father* ; y ^^.^t>^\ asp-i tu, ** thy horse **" ; •\ {^\Si' kitabi o, "his or her hook'^; ^\ d^t^ kimat-ian, "its price**; U ^»il>. khana-e ma, " our house" &c. The second per- son forms the Vocative by prefixing an interjection; as, J (^^ at tu, ** O thou !** The first and third persons cannot, in their nature, have a Vocative, without virtually becoming the second person. They all form the Ablative by prefixing the simple prepositions :\^ j^> V^ &c. to the Nominative ; as, ^ j^ az man, " from me" ; y\j bd tu, " with thee" ; ^\j> bar o, * on him" ; ^^\j^ dor an, " in it" 32. Besides the regular inflexions of the Personal Pro- nouns^ there are certain contracted forms or affixes, which, when joined to nouns or verbs, may denote the Genitive, Dative, or Accusative Case. These are, j^ am, for the 1st person ; CJ— aiy for the 2d ; and (j*>-^ ash, for the 3d ; as, J^ dil-am, '' my heart '^ ; CJj^ sar-at, '' thy head^'; ^J5S-*^ dast-ash, *'his hand'^: but the expla- nation of these, as well as of the Reciprocal Pronoun 3^ khtid, or uH>^ **^** (§-12- b.% ''self,'' or "selves,** belongs more properly to the section on Sjmtax. 33. The Demonstrative or Adjective Pronoims are, f^\ m, " this '' or " these/' and ^\ an, '' that '' or those.'' As Adjectives, they are indeclinable, and applicable to all 34 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. genders and numbers ; thus, 3yo ^^1 m fward, '' this man^' ; tl)^-^ /^» m mar dan, ''these men^^; ^^J^jj)* 5/i kitab, ''that book^'; ^?^ (j' an kitdbhd, "those books. When used as the representatives of nouns^ they form the plural, in the same manner as the noim for which they stand ; thus, j^W^ indn, " these '' or " they,'' if applicable to persons ; and ^aJi inAa, " these'' or "they/' when referring to inanimate things ; and in like manner ^\ and \l^\ "those" or "they." 34. The Interrogative Pronouns are &^ Id (Dative and Accusative, ^S kird), " who ? " " whom ? " and &^ chi (Dative and Accusative, \j^ chird), "what V "which ?" They are applicable to both numbers ; the former gene- rally relating to persons, and the latter to things. To these may be added, /^0o kuddm, " Which of two ? '' or " Which out of • any number ? '' Oo>^ chandf " how many?" also, " some " or " several," which are equaUy applicable to persons and inanimate things. When ^ and &^ are added to the word ^ har or {*)l/^ har-^n, they correspond to oiu: who-, what-, or whichsoever ; as, A^^ harki, or A-XJIj-* hardnkh " whosoever," &c. Fi- nally, io and ^ are sometimes used as substitutes for the Relative Pronouns, of which more hereafter. a. The Persian language, like the Arabic, generally dispenses 99 i I THE VERB. 35 with, or rather does not possess, a relative pronoun exactly similar to the qui, qu> Vj< an mard ki ora didam \- or, ^jLoJj^ 8^^ ^^ an mard Id dtddmash; literally, ^^The man that I saw him." In these expressions it will be seen that the particle gf is not a relative pronoun, but a conjunction. This remark, which may be considered premature, is sufficient to shew that the explanation of this pecu- » liarity belongs more properly to the Syntax. SECTION III. ON THE VERB. 35. The Persian Verb is extremely regular in its struc- ture ; there being only one form or conjugation, applicable to every verb in the language. All the Tenses are formed either from the Root or from the Ini&nitive^ as will be seen in the following example of the verb (j^-^h^ raszdan, '' to arrive.^' The root of this verb is {j^j ras (which is also the 2d pers. sing, of the Imperative) ; from which the following four Tenses, the Noun of Agency and the Present Participle, are formed : TENSES OF TriE ROOT. 1st. — The Aorist, I may or can arrive ; formed by adding the terminations am, z, ad; em, ed, and; to the root. FE&S. SINGULAB. €t 1. jgtjij "RAsam, I may arrive." 2. ^j^ RAst, lliou mayest arrive." 3. 0^ RAsad, *' He may arrive.*' PLURAL. €t j^j RAsenif We may arrive." JjujS. RA&ed, You may arrive. G JjuiSy RAsamf,^^They may arrive. 36 THE VERB. PLURAL. 2d. — The Present Tense, / can arriving, or I arrive ; formed by merely prefixing the Particle ^ mi to the Aorist; as, PEIUI. BIKOULAB. 1. j^j ^ fm^KAB-am, ''lam ar- ^* L^J L^ fm-RAS-i, **Thou art amviDg. 3. J^ ^^ fm-RAS-Bd, *'He is ar- nving. We are » ••^ • ■ » amving. v>iM^j buBAB-am, "l shall ar- nye:' 2. j<^ W-RAS-e, Thou wilt ar- nve. 3. Jw^ bi'KAs-ad, '' He will ar- nve. ^A^ M-RAs-^m, ''We shall ar- * M nve. Juu4^ 6t-RA8-^{^^ "You will ar- rive. v>J^ M-RAS-ofu/, "T&ey will arrive. 4th. — The Imperative, Let me arrive. The same as the Aorist, except in the 2d pers. sing., which consists of the mere root, without any termination. 1. j^j RAS-am, Let me arrive. 2. ^j RAs, "Arrive thou." 3. O^j RAs-ad, "Let him arrive n ^ju^ RAS^m, Let us arrive.** Ju*i^ RAS^, Arrive you.*' c \yjj^ RAsand, '^Let them arrive. * This' Tense seems to differ very little from the Aorist, which, in its nature, frequently denotes futurity. The student, therefore, may consider it as a Simple Future, or as a modification of the Aorist ; the latter being the opinion of all the Native Grammarians that we have had an opportunity of consulting. THE VERB. 37 From the root are also formed the Noun of Agency, by adding the termination ^^^i-^^ anda ; as, ^SiXiu#»j ras- anday '^ the arriver '^ : also the Present Participle; by adding (j i— ; as, i^y^j RAsa^i, '* arriving/^ The remaining parts of the verb come directly or indirectly from the Infinitive. The three following tenses ^ (No. 5, 6, and 7) are formed directly by changing the final {^ n oi the Infinitive into the terminations of the Aorist ; except in the 3d pers. sing., where no termination is added ; together with other modifications which will be seen below : — thus, (j^i^iH* m rastdariy *' to arrive,'^ from which come directly— 5th. — Preterite or Indefinite Past, I arrived. FEES. filNGrLAR. 1. f^O^j RASiD-am, I arrived. 2. ^sO^j RASiD-«, Thouarrivedst." 3. v>i*^ RAsiD, He arrived. PLURAL. jCJJ^ RASiD-ewi, "We arrived." Joj^j nAsiD-ed, You arrived.** JjJJ^ KiLSiD'and, "They arrived." 6th. — Imperfect, I was arriving ; formed by prefixing the Particle ^^ m to the Preterite. ♦♦X 1. A Jju<3»j ^ mtRABiDam, " I was arriving.** 2. (^Jju^^ «l«RAsiD«, Thou wast ^'^ ^ arriving » 3. O^j 1^ »i« RASID, He was y^ ^i^ arriving 9> jC Jju*>. j except the 2d pers. smg., which is unchanged. PBRS. BINGULAB. I. f^v>J^ RASiD-ome,' I might ar- nve. 2. c/v>j^ RAsm-i, Thou migfatest 3. c/v>i^; RASib-^, He ought ar- nve. amve. PLURAL. ^^^v>i*^ RASiD-€»i«, *'We might arnye. c^v>^v>j^ RAsii>-€d» ^^Jjjuu^ RAsiD-aftd^, They might arrive.^ 8th, — Compound Future, I u)ill arrive; 'formed by adding the Infinitive, generally deprived of its final syllable {^-^9 to the Aorist (^l^, &c.) of the verb ^j^)^ kh-dstdn, which signifies to intend or wish. 1. Jou^ (^1^ kHaham rasid, ^'I shall or will arrive.'' 2. JJb^ t/1^ *A'aA»iiA8n),*'Thou shalt or wilt arrive.'' 3. Jju^ v>^)^ khahad rasid, ''He shall or will arive." JuMi^^^jP- kNahem rasid, "We shall or will arrive. ** Ju*^ Jl^^^ kliaAed RAsiD, " Ton shall or will arrive.** G JumSj vK^)^ kNahand jmsiDy* They shall or wiQ arrive." The three following tenses are compounded of the Pre- terite, Participle, and Auxiliaries.^ This Participle is re- gularly formed by changing the final (^ w of the Infinitive into the obscure S h; as from (^j^-^i^ randan, ^*to arrive/' comes ^sXi^j rasidah, '' arrived '' or *' having arrived ^^: hence. THE VERB. 39 FE&S. 9th. — ^The Perfect Tense, I have arrived* PLURAL. SINQULAB. 1. J^ 'JH^ RAsiDah-am, '^ I have arrived." RAsiDaA-i, ^ Thou hast arrived. » 3. \£j^ ^04^ JLhsAjiOh-OBt^ ^'He has arrived." u (C^ 'Jv^ju^ RAsiDaA-e^Ti, " We have arrived.^* JjWjji.^ RASioaA-tfcf, *^You have arrived." j3Vsjju4^ "Bjisa^ah-and^ '^They have arrived." 10th. — Pluperfect Tensis, I had arrived. 1. A^y ^O^j RAsiDa^ budam, I had arrived." 2. (^2>^ '0^^ KAsiDah budt, "Thou ^ hadst arrived.** 3. 2|y »J<4*^ RAsiDoA 6M(jf, ''He had arrived." £^^ sjju^ RAsiDaA budenty We had arrived.** J^3y *JS^ rasIdoA hudedy "You had arrived.*' <>>^^ Sv>j^ RAsiDaA budandf*^ They had arrived." 11th. — Future Perfect, I ^Aa// Aaue arrived. 1. ^b l^JJb^ RAsioaA basham^ I shall have arrived.*' 2. ^J5»V *J^^ RASiDaA bashz, "Thou shall have arrived.'* 3. jJ^b l(v>A^ RAsiDaA bashad, "He shall have arrived." j»jJ5jb *v>4*^ RAsiDaA bashem, "We- shall have arrived." JjJSib »w)^j RAslDflA bashed, "You shall have arrived." Jjuisb Sjub^ RAsiDaAfia^Aan^^^'^They diall have/arrived.'* 36. In the preceding manner may be conjugated every verb in the Persian Language, provided one knows the Infinitive and the Root. The Infinitive is the part gene- rally given in Dictionaries ; and thence the Root may be readily ascertained, by a few simple rules : 40 THE VERR— INFINITIVE AND BOOT. GENERAL RULES. 1st, Every Infinitive ends in (j3 dan or /^ tan ; and the Imperative or Root is found by the rules which we are about to give. 2dly, The Aonst is * formed by adding to the root the terminations am, t, ad ; em, ed, and. 3dly, By dropping the final j^ of the Infinitive, we have the " 3d pers. sing, of the Preterite ; and by adding the termi- nations above given, the rest of the Preterite is invariably formed. 4thly, The Perfect Participle is formed by chang- ing the final jj of the Infinitive into ^ imperceptible ; and thence may be formed the Compound Tenses : hence it follows, that if the Infinitive and Imperative be. known, the remaining parts of the verb are easily formed*^ cu Infinitives in dan are preceded by the long vowels a, (a few by the short a,) I, or H, or by the consonants r and n. Those in tan are preceded by the strong consonants kh, s, shfOrf: hence the following special rules : RULE I. ■ Infinitives in ^>^ — adaii and ^^JJ-^ tdan reject these termina- tions for the Root; afl; ,.j^lL->j} firistadan, "to send,^ root CJAr^J firist, " send Aou -^ so /ov>A*^ fursidan, " to asf root ^j^ purs^ ^^ ask thou.^^ The following verbs are anomalous : INTINITIYS. ROOT. INFINITITB. ROOT. ^>U^ " to prepare,'* U1 /^>b "4o ^ve," » U^IJ "to be bom,*' \j ^2j,o *' to generate,'* u ^^:i^ " to open," Ui ^v>>^ *'to create," ^^J\ €€ ^W« to gather," i^^J^ to see, xJ^ ^ J^ ''to hear,^' ^ i/vAiJS "to choose," ^^ THE VERB— INFINITIVE AND ROOT. 41 To these may be added the following' verbs in ^3, preceded by the short yowel a ; there may be a few more such in the language, but their number is by no means great. INFINITIVE. ^^^j "to strike," ^^ ^Ji-i "totake,""seize/*^lju^ ^^2>j\ to sew, pierce, Ji \ or L^\ ^^^\ ' to cojne/* y or r^ INFINITIVE. ROOT. RULE II. Infinitives in ,..^9— Hdan reject that termination, and substitute y ^J] — ae for the root; as^ m^jJ^ " ^ praise/' ^cU^i. The excep- tions are — ^^^ to be or remain. ^^^ to draw/' 9^^ ^ 99 ^^PJ^ "to reap,** 4; ^^^j to neigh," howV' 9j ^^ jji ' to be or become,*' jj5> ^*)^y^ * to hear/' if *t ^2>ykP to slumber/' ftip The Infinitive ^ jJ5j is a contraction of ^o^j-^ ^^ t^O^y^ • RULE III. Infinitives in ^^ dan, preceded by >, ., or j inert, reject the termination ^> for the root ; as, ^ JoT kandan, " to dig,'* ^ Aan; 00 . ^ ^ ^^ U^Jji P^''^^'''^'^* ** t^ cherish,"'' . j j parwar ; ^;y < or ^^\ azdan, " to sew," j\ or j\. The exceptions are — ^^^\ ''to vex,'* "offend," j\j< ^^^^\ ''to press/' JJLi\ ^^^j^ " to bring/' ^\ orjj\ ^^ "to bear," " carry," j> ^y^ " to entrust," jUm> ^^;>j-**i» to reckon/' . ^ Jj^ " to dig a canal/' JJ^ ^>j^ to do/' ' make/' ^^ c c ^^ Jj^ " to rot/' 0^ ^^>jo " to die/' ^ G 42 THE VERB— INFINITIVE AND ROOT. Seyeral of the ezceptiona under Rules II. and III. have, at the same time, regular Infinitives ending in ^ jj _._ idan ; a% ^ JjJj^ >'^ < « whence the regular rootyj; so, ij^,J^^ "to count,'* IJi. RULE IV. Infinitiyes in ^ tan^ preceded by «>r inert, reject ^^ and change • into J for the root ; as, ^Jk»-^ji^ " to throw,'* ji^- tr^jBsi "to mix,** ' Wtc,** jij^ to to Iea|v * to seek," ^^\>' to nse, ^J^)^ '* to wish/* • • lU {2p*^j "to escapV' »j 0/ ^^^ to grow, to wash," ^j^:uJCJ^ "to break," ^^^K '* to lessen,** ^♦jAiiMixiiy to Dreak, ■ c ^^^lli " to cause to at," ^jlli .. A ; «• to sit,** (iW" RULE VI. Infinitives in ^, preceded by ^ inert, reject ^', and change THE VERB.— INFINITIVE AND HOOT. 43 ji into J ; as, Jiiib " to have or possess,'' ^b. The following are exceptions : BOOT. IN^INITIVB. C ^ ^^^\p\ "to accumulate, {^^\ ^j^jP^ '* to embrace,** {^J^^ ^y\ " to exalt/ j\J\ INFIKITIYB. C ROOT. C ^fji ''to become/* "turn," ^ c ^^y to write, ^j-4y c ^o^lt* " to quit," Jjb or rr^ RULE VII. Infinitives in ^*, preceded by uJ inert, generally reject -^, and change uJ into \^\ as, ^JkiU "to shine,'' "twist," &c. l-^\5; but in some verbs the uJ remsdns unchanged in the root; as, /«Jkib " to weave," u-i^* '^^® following are exceptions : ^^,J^ to accept,** ^,JJ ^j^»>. " to sleep/' ^ " to go,** ^j^:i*»J " to bore/' 4; G 9 ^^p^ "to hear/* o Y^ ^^% "to dig," "cleave," jK ^^^ " to take," J ^ "to say/* j^j^ Sometimes the short vowel preceding the termmation of the Infinitive is lengthened in the root ; as, ^^li. " to sweep," l-J>jj. 37. Let the Student carefully commit to memory the preceding Rules^ together with their exceptions; after which he will have no difficulty in conjugating any Per- sian Verb of ordinary occurreiice. Let it be remembered, at the same time^ that there, is not, strictly speaking, any Irregular Verb in this language. For instance, the verbs ^^\Xjii f^ "' to see,'' and ^y-^ ^^ "" to do,'' are 44 THE VERB.— INFINITIVE AND ROOT. no more irregular than the corresponding Latin Verbs video, vidi, visum; and ago, egi, actum; for in both languages the various tenses &c. are formed from their respective sources or principal parts, according to general rules. It may be observed, also, that most of the roots given as exceptions to the preceding rules have regular Infinitives in tdan still in use ; in fact, we ought in strict- ness to consider the Infinitives as anomalous, and the c roots regular* Thus, /^r^-lA " to quit,'^ *' dismiss,'^ has for its root ^ or yji^, which really come from the regular Infinitive (j'^iJA or j^v^xlA, still in use ; whilst /^■ M . fe itself is a very natural contraction of ^^v^xlA into (jvXlA, and ultimately ^ As a specimen of an anomalous Verb, (if we may so call it) we here subjoin the verb ^y. zadan, " to strike,^ root ^j zan^ which, to save room, we shall give in the Roman character.* 1st. TENSES OF THE ROOT. sinauLAR. Aorist zan-am i ad Present .... mi-zan-am i ad Second Future, bi-zan-am i ad Imperative. . . zanam zan zan-ad A X J Ti X- • 1 A .• ( xanandah "the striker/' Agent and Participle Active, < [^ zanan *' striking.'' PLUSAL. etn ed and em ed and em ed and em ed and * It will be a useful exercise for the Student to write out this verb nt full length in the Persian character ; to which he may add, didan^ root Inn " to see," and shudauy root shcm ** to be," or " become.** THE VERB.— INFINITIVE AND ROOT. 45 2d. — TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. SINGULAB. PLURAL. Preterite. . . , zadam zadt zad zad-em -ed -and Imperfect . mt-zadam — — — — — Past Potential, zadame zadl zade zad-eme -ede -ande Comp. Future, Miaham zad, kKahl zad, kKakad zad, &c. Pret. Participle, zadah " stricken," ** struck," " having struck." Perfect zadah-am -i -ast -em -ed -and Pluperfect ... zadahhudam budt hud bud-em -ed -and Future Perfect, zadah bash-am -I -ad -em -ed -and To this we may add another useful verb of frequent occurrence, ^^ jJ5j «Ai*dan, " to be," "to go," "to become," root y^ shav. Aorist shav-am I ad em ed and Present .... mz-shav-am — — — — — Second Future, bi-shav-am — — — — — Imperative . . shavam^ shav shav-ad — — — Agent and Part shavandah and shavan^ " being," or " becoming." Preterite . . . shud-am shudi shud^ &c. Imperfect . . . mi-shud-am, &c. Past Potential, shudame shudt shude, &c. Comp. Future, kKaham shudj khahl shud, &c. Pret Participle, shudah, " been," or " become." Perfect . .^ . . shiidah am^ shudah i, shudah oM, &c. Pluperfect . . . shudah budam, shadah budi, shudah bud, &c. Future Perfect, shudah basham, shudah basht, shudah bashad, &c. PASSIVE VOICE. 38. The Passive Voice is regularly formed by prefixing the Preterite Participle to the various tenses of the verb j^vXii, which we have just exemplified. Thus, the Passive of the verb U^ is formed as follows : 46 THE VERB. PRESENT. 8IMGULAB. *^ l^j " I may be strack." {^y^ S^ " Thou mayest be struck.'' ^y^ ^^J ** ^® ™^y ^ struck.'* PLUaAL. (^y^ »3J " We may be struck." v>iy5i »3J " You may be struck.** JJ^ S3j '* They may be struck." PRETERITE. aO^ S^ "I was struck.*' ^^jJSs B^ ''Thou wast struck. jJi 5^ " He was struck." ji^jJi»3J " We were stmA." Jj v>2> »^ *' You were struck." ji w>^ J^ ** They were struck.'' It would be superfluous to add more of the Passive Voice, in the formation of which the Persian very much resembles our own language. CAUSAL VERBS. 39. These are formed by adding the termination ^j^^jpl.^ dmdan, or, contracted^ ^^ijii-iL dndan, to the root of the primitive verb ; thus, ^JJi^, root &>► '^to leap''; from which j^jv^ipv^?- ^'to cause to leap''; so ^Od^j, root {j^j ''to arrive"; (j^iXjOw^j or ^^OcXttSfj '' to cause to arrive/' " to send." All Causal Verbs form their roots according to Rules I. and III. a. Hiere are a few other compound tenses, or rather modes of expression, besides those given in the paradigm of ^v>j^ (p. 35 &c.), which will be treated of in the Syntax. It will be proper to add here, that, according to Dr. Lumsden, whose authority we consider decisive on this point (owing to his frequent intercourse with learned Natives), '' the sound of the letter ^e in the terminations ^ — and THE VERB. 47 jj^ — (Ist and 2d persons plnr.) of all the tenses is what is called majhvl. The final ^^ added to the Preterite in forming the Po- tential, or continuative past time, is majhul in the 1st and 3d pers. singular, and in the 3d pers. plural. In all the tenses the final ^ (or hamza when substituted), in the 2d pers. sing., is mdruf^^ This remark is the more essential, as many Natives of Persia (at least the uneducated) deny the existence, in their language, of the sound represented by j and ^ tno/AtZZ, which they always pronounce like • and ^c mcCruf; Le. instead of jj . roz, " a day,^ they say ruz ; and instead of Jjo heU ** a spade/' they say b$L Dr. Lumsden states, however, ''that the distinction is recognised in every Lexicon, and will not be controverted by a well-educated Persian. It ought therefore to be carefully retained by those who are desirous of acquiring an accurate and classical pronunciation." — Lumsden's Pers. Gram. vol. I. p. 72. b. The verbal terminations of the Perfect Tense (p. 39) are firequently used with Substantives, Adjectives, and Participles, to denote simple affirmation or assertion. In such cases, the initial \ of the terminations is omitted, and the vowel which it forms becomes united with the last consonant of the word preceding ; thus, SINGULAR. A^j-i\Mt ^ '' I am a scholar." rg^jfe W y Thou art a servant - \5\P'j\ "He is sensible.^' PLURAL. j>^\:^jS^ U '* We are scholars.'' ^^ W ^"♦^^ * ^^^ *'® servants." Jui\^> ^ISj< " They are thieves.'* But if the preceding word ends in the weak i ^ the \ is retained in the verbal terminations; as, A »jj^ "I am a slave^; ^c\ ajW^y or ^d3U>>y ''Hiou art mad""; Caj^^ iCJ^i ** He (she or it) is an angeL" If the preceding word ends in the vowels \ or . , the letter ^ is inserted, to prevent a hiatus between these and the verbal terminations; as, ^.Uji> " I am seeing"; ^\Sb " Thou art wise"; and (contracted) C>*^%j>^ " He or she is fair-faced." 48 THE verb; c. . Somewhat akin to the preceding terminations is another frag- ment of a verb denoting " to be^ ** to exists nsed under the form, of a Preterite, but generally with the sense of a Present Tense ; as^ SINGULAR. €( It I am or exist » ^^MNHH^' (J.mJ^ Thou art or existest i» ^^ <« He is or ensts. w PLURAL. jftjuuJb We are or exist.** JJuLjb You are or exist. They are or exist. i< M >f This verb is also used as an Auxiliary in forming a Preter- Perfect Tense, by being joined to the Preterite Participle ; in which case both the final s of the Participle and the initial ^ of the Auxiliary are rejected ; as, JL))UjjJ^ " I have heard*' ; ^5**»v>>> " Thou hast seen^'; O^Jou^ "He has asked.** This form of the Preter- Perfect is frequently used in poetry, simply becauije it may happen, to suit the poet's metre. It does not seem to differ in signification from the ordinary form given in page 39. OF NEGATIVE AND PROHIBITIVE VERB& 40. A Verb is rendered negative by prefixing the Par- ticle &> (or *^) na, '' not '' ; as, Jsi-^ ^ or O^J^ " He did not arrive/^ With the Imperative, the Particle «^ (or ^) ma is employed in like manner, to express prohibition ; ^* U*Lt^ *^ ^^ U*L^ ''Ask not^^; so ^U* or bU« "Let it not be,^' frequently used in the sense of " God forbid.'^ a. When the Particles ^ , S , or ^ are prefixed to a verb begin- ning with \^ not marked by the symbol — (§.17.), the letter ^c is inserted to prevent a hiatus ; the \ is then omitted, and its vowel transferred to the inserted ^ ; thus, vl^\ j3\ anddkhU *' He threw''; O^^ Jjj3 nayanddkht, " He did not throw'' ; Aorist, ^\ ufbamt *•! may fall"; Future, J^ biyuftam, "I shall fall": ^\jdv NEGATIVE VERBS. 49 O^X "consider''; JS^ "consider not** If the verb begins with \, the \ remains, but the madda — is rejected ; thus, v\ " He may bring'' ; :>Jllj " He wiU bring"; j{« Bring thou"; J^i "Do not bring"; but this, in reality, is in strict conformity with the general rule ; for j\ is equivalent to .M : hence, in prefixing the particles along with the letter ^, the first \ is rejected, as we stated at the outset* Finally, the negative «i , in verse, frequently unites with the foUow- ing \, without the intervention of the j^. as, j^\i, for J^U), "He came not." •• o ^ • 6. The substantive verb JLjb is rendered negative by changing the initial ^ into (^, and prefixing > ; thus. SINGULAR. ^^jumJJ I am not. j^-Ij3 '* Thou art not. jj *' He, &c. is not. PLUBAL. We are not." «< *.^ C| wXaa^mJO You are not.** v^^JUmJJ They are not." To denote simple negation, the verbal terminations noticed §. 39. 6. are subjoined to the particle to, as follows: * it ^ jg^ I am not. ^S^ or ^«3 " Thou art not," He &c. is noV* We are not Juu) You are not. v>JLjl3 " They are not. M * On a similar principle the initial \ is omitted in the pronouns ^\ " this," and ^ (properly ^\\) " that,'' when they are closely connected with the preceding word; as, ^j>J> "on this," instead of ^^j? » so, ^\.^ "in that," for ^\ .^. I have reason to believe that this principle is of a very extensive application ; but the discussion to which it would lead would be here out of place. H ( 50 ) SECTION IV. ON THE INDECLINABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. — CARDINAL NUMBERS.-. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF WORDS. ADVERBS. 4l. The Persian Language oflTers no peculiarity on the score of Adverbs, except its extreme simplicity : hence it would be superfluous to occupy our pages with a dry list of words, which more properly belong to the Vocabulary. We may briefly mention, that, in this language, adverbs are formed, or rather adopted, as follows : a. 1st, SybHantives with or without a preposition; as, ^cJbl^ " one, or any time'' ; Jj " by name'*' ; jj. j ^Ji " night and day''; ^g}^ 6> " perfectly" ; #o^4^^ " secretly." 2dly, Adjectives without undergoing any change ; as, ^^ " well" ; C^^ " senrerely," &c. In fiict, all adjectives may be used adverbially, if necessary, as is frequently the case in German, and sometimes in English; thus, '*the eagle soars high"; "the fish swims deep." 3dly, Adjective or Interrogative Pronouns with Substantives ; as, \^ " here," \^\ "there"; \^« where?" «i^ "how?" uJ> J j/" whither?' &c. These again may be preceded by a preposition ; as, \^ *\ *' hence" ; W\ ^ " there." Lastly, there are some Arabic nouns in the Accusative Case used adverbially in Persian ; as, "^W " pre- sently"; ^ '* purposely." PREPOSITIONS. 51 PREPOSITIONS. 42. The simple Prepositions in this language are very few, probably not more than seven or eight in number. These are, j\ (in poetry frequently contracted into ^) ^'from/' ''by^'; ^ ''with (in company with)''; j> and j>\ ''on/' ''upon''; &? or ? "in," "by," "to"; ^^ "without (deprived of)"; b ''up to," "as far as"; " except," " besides " ; J3 " in." In their application they are placed before the simple or nominative forms both of nouns and pronouns ; as, j {^ ^*i)^ " in the city'' ; {j^J *' on me " ; j? b '' with thee " ; d^\y> " except them." a. The rest of the prepositions are, strictly speaking, substantives or adjectives, having one of the simple particles above mentioned expressed or understood. Such of them as are substantives require the ixafat, or sign of the genitive case, between them and the noun which they govern ; as, ^jy^\j>\ " under the ground" ; C^^ ^J%^ "above the tree (i.e. on the top of the tree)"; j^ CiiJj*.^ «J "near the city,** literally, " to, or in the vicinity of the city." Some of them may be viewed as adjectives denoting comparison ; as, ^jfiuo ^j\ (for (^J<>2-j) " before me'' ; ^Vj\ ^ " after that." All these compound prepositions may of course be used adverbially when occasion requires, as is the case in English ; thus, ij^ mh^ " he went out" ; Jm«\ y* ;^ \ " he eame forward" ; jjU ^-^ " he remained behind." CONJUNCTIONS. 43. Primitive Conjunctions, like the simple Preposi- tions, are not numerous. The following are of frequent 52 CONJUNCnOMS, &c. occurrence : -^ , ^" if " ; «-53-J " but/' " on the con- trary"; \?"whUst," "unta''; y^ , ^»)y^ " Yfhen," " as" ; «^, «^"that/^ "for," "as"; jjXkJ "but'^ Jp "also"; J ''and^' (pronounced wa, and sometimes o); jJ^ ''even ''also^^ V'^or/' ''either/' 9 a. There are also, as might be expected, many compound phrases employed in this language as conjunctions; as, aT^) JW " whereas,^^ "inasmuch as*"; aj3V,< iJL^ "before that (antequam); so, dJ3\j\ Ojo '' after that {po9teaquamy INTERJECTIONS. 44. In Persian^ as in other languages^ Inteijections consist partly of adventitiods sounds denoting the passions and emotions of the speaker ; as, i\ " ah ! '' iS^ '' O V &c. ; and partly of substantives expressive of pain or pleasure, used elliptically, or in the vocative case ; as, ^J*^^*-^' " Alas ! '' ^j3 or Ujj3 " Oh, unfortunate ! '' To say more about this part of speech (if it may be so called) would be uselessly encroaching on the department of the Vocabulary. NUMERALS. 45. In the following* Table we shall give the leading Cardinal Numbers, together with the corresponding Ara- bian and European figures. It is needless to say that the whole system is extremely simple, and very similar to what we have in English. NUMERALS. 53 CARDINAL NUMBERS. \ 1 ei^,jCUH^ n 21 r 2 rr « 22 jM> ^ n^ 3 r^ 30 jW?" P 4 t^' 40 6 5 s\^* b* 50 (J^ 1 6 C j^ V 60 c V 7 v» 70 o A 8 c A« 80 d3 ^ 9 V V 90 s^ !♦ 10 J-« )♦♦ 100 c n 11 i^.ji» \ ♦! 101 1 r 12 ^ j-«j» r«« 200 »*i^ ir 13 r.. 300 »*jV IP 14 J-»jV p.. 400 »5pb. u 15 0*» 500 n 16 nM> V* 600 c C C 9ji^ 17 v>oTR» v«* 700 o CO. • &J^^ |A 18 O^^A^MMlb A* ♦ 800 n 19 V- 900 •• • r* 20 ^^ t ♦♦♦ 1000 The formation of the Ordinal Numbers will be treated of under the head of Derivative Adjectives. 54 THE MUSSULMAN ARA. cu The aboye figures or numeric cyphers, now used by the Arabs and Persians, are read like ours, from left to right; thus, the year of our aera*1845 is i A^d ; so the corresponding year of the Hijra 1261 is I r II. It is generally admitted, eyen by the Arabs them- selyes, that' the decimal scale of notation was invented in India, and thence brought to Arabia.' By the Arabs it was introduced into . Europe through Spain; and hence the system goes under the name of the Arabian Notation. At first sight it would appear to be at variance with the Arabian mode of reading (from right to left) ; but this is not 'really the case, as the Arabs do read the numbers from right to left. Thus, instead of saying, " In the year of the Hijra (ini) One thousand two hundred and sixty-one,'' the Arabs say, " In the year of the Hijra, One and sixty and two hundred and one thousand," or ^^ two hundred after the thousand." 6. The Mussulmans reckon by lunar time in all their trans- actions, commencing from the day on which Muhammad departed from Mecca ; which, according to the best accounts, took place on Friday, the 16th of July (18th, new style), A.D. 622. Their year consists of 12 lunations, amounting to 354 days and 9 hours, very nearly : hence their NeW-year^s Day will happen every year about eleven days earlier than in the preceding year. It follows, then, that there must be some difficulty in finding the exact day of the Christian sera which corresponds to any given Mussulman date. The following rule will suffice for finding the number of solar or Christian years elapsed since any given Mussulman date : — ^^ Sub- tract the given year of the Hijra from the current year of the same, and from the remainder deduct three per cent ; then you will have the number of solar or Christian years elapsed." Thus, we see a valuable manuscript of a Persian Poem (suppose the Hadika of Sanayi), written A.H. 681. We subtract this from the present year of the Hijra, 1260; there remains 579: from this we deduct 3 per cent, or one year for every 33 ; the result is 562, the real age of the MS. in Solar years : hence it must have been written about DERIVATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 65 A«D. 1282. This simple rule is founded on the fact, that 100 lunar years are very nearly equal to 97 solar years, there being only about eight days of difference. A more accurate proportion would be 101 lunar to 98 solar years ; but this would lead to a less con- venient rule for practical use. DERIVATION OF WORDS. 4 46. In Persian, the derivation of one word from another is effected by means of certain terminations, in a manner similar to that which prevails in most of the Em-opean languages. The words so derived are chiefly substantives and adjectives, together with a few verbs and adverbs, all of which we shall notice in their order. Ist. — OF SUBSTANTIVES. a. Substantives denoting an agent or performer are derived from other substantives by adding the terminations ^b or /j\j, .1^ oxS\ as, from .^ "a door,'^ oVj^ ®^ tjl^j^ "* door-keeper'"; from Ci^J^ ''service,'' .\^j^ "a servant or attendant"'; so, from jj " goWs" fjj " a goldsmith, or worker in gold." In modern Per- sian, the termination '^ (apparently from the Turkish) is some- times met with; as, from jjjcJL^ "a musket,'' ^jj - ; **a musketeer.'' 6. Names relating to the place of any thing are formed by adding ^^— , jV> a'^' j)j> ^^^ r^ ' ^ {J^J^ " * P'^^® abounding with lions," from ^ " a lion" ; ^b fL^ " a candlestick," from xyji "a candle or lamp"; .U^ " a rose-bed," from J^" a rose c c or flower" ; so, from f^Jzj^ " a stone," ^*:^X^^ " a place abounding with stones." 0. Diminutives are formed by adding (^jl_ for names of animals ; 56 DERIVATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. ^ (sometimes 5V) for inanimate beings; and a>.^ or »^—, appU- cable to any noans ; thus, {^:>ic " a little man/' from ^to '^ a man"" ; 8*ib "a small grain," from «3b "a grain"; e^^ **a little door or window,'^ from .^ "a door.^ cL An Abstract Noun may be formed from any adjective, simple or compound, by the addition of ^c — maWvf; as, iCj "goodness,'*'' from CiJuj "good;'' ^c^\^ ^l^ "the possessing of the world," "royalty," from -b mV^ "world-possessing,** an epithet applied to monarchs. By adding ^j — to appellatiye nouns an abstract will be formed, denoting the state or profession indicated by the noun ; as, jblji^b "sovereignty," from slji^b "a king;" ^g/bj*i "traffic," from^:>^ ** a merchant." If the primitive word should end in the weak &, the s is suppressed, and the letter ^ inserted before adding the termination jc; as, »^,;\ "sad," ^^A "sadness;" so, » jjj " slave," ^jJj " slavery." e. Verbal Nouns are formed by changing the final syllable ^^an of the Infinitive into .\~; as, ^ Jj^ "to see," .\v>>^ ••seeing" "a sight** The Infinitive itself is frequently used as a general verbal noun, like our words in ing\ as, JLd. ^0>^\ "the coming of Rustam." In a few phrases the final c:)— of the Infinitive is rejected ; as, jji. j«o< "coming and going;" so, C^j/j 0^^ "buying and selling," ** traffic." Another class of verbal nouns is formed from the root by adding ^— or {^-;r \ ^ {J^ "speaking," "conversation," from X the root of ^JVi^ " to speak"; so, itx>i\ " creation," from ^^^^,the root of ^^d^^ "*^ create." The noun denoting the agent of a verb is formed (as already stated, page 37) by adding the termination j jj— to the root; as, jjji^\ "the Creatqr": and if the root ends with the long vowels a or o, the letter cf is inserted between it and the termination; as, &Ju>^ " the speaker." DERIVATION OP ADJECTIVES. 57 2d. — OF ADJECTIVES. /. Adjectives denoting possession, &c. are formed by adding to nouns the terminations ), J^^ ^jS, Jur«, jlj, j^ °' jj ^ ^^^ ^_. as, from the root ^b "know,'' Ub "learned''; .L-oJ5> "bashftd," from ^ "shame"; ^jjX^ "sorrowful," from ^ "sorrow"; JJU^Jj^ "wealthy"; .)^jjic\ "hopeful," from jjw>< "hope"; .Jl>- "possessed of life," "an animal," from ^U- "life," " soul** ; .^ " sorrowftil," from J^ " sorrow" ; ^j " golden," from ♦ "gold." g. The terminations \tA^ U)^ .U*)^ and /v^, added to nouns, form adjectives denoting similitude"; ^\i and ^^ denote resem- blance in colour; as, U>\ CiXii "like musk"; ^L.^»l>- "like dust," " humble" ; rfrj (^ ^ " like the moon" ; ^li J^ " ruby-coloured" ; ^1^ J'i/ " of the colour of tulip.'* K A large class of adjectives, which may be termed gentile, patronymic, or relative, is formed from substantives, by adding the termination ^J—\ thus, from ^JjJS "Persia," i^j^\ "Persian"; from julb "India," ^J^y^ "Indian"; from the city, jUwi, comes 4/jlfr^ "of, iyr belonging to Shiraz"; so, from the substantives . ^ ^ " a city," J c !>w « a forest," •^ " the sea," are formed the adjectives ^jj^, ij^^* ^&^' ''^^ termination is of extensive use in the formation of both substantives and adjectives. L The terminations e^\— and (sometimes) \^ added to nouns form adjectives, denoting general or natural resemblance: hence fitness or worthiness, of the original noun ; as, «3\^ " manful," " worthy of a man" ; «3Uj^ "demoniac," " worthy of a (ji>) demon"; L^\J5j " princely, or fit for a prince." j. By adding the termination ^— to the cardinal numbers, we form the corresponding ordinal ; thus, ^ •; q fc " the seventh," from I 58 COMPOSITION OF WORDS. c seven.^ When more words than one are required to express the ordinal number, the ^A- ^ added to the last only ; as, C1a#*>jl? ^SWb • " the twenty-seventh.** The word expressing the first of the ordinals, ^^OLyj^, is an exception: the Arabic word Jj\ is also frequently used; as, JJ[^ L-^b "Book or Section the First*; but these words are not used, except for the jkni only. In the case of a number expressed by two or more numerals, of which the last is unity, the ordinal is formed by adding a— to the C^ ; as, Cy,j^r> jC> J "the twenty- first" The ordinals second and Ihird maybe Oj^, ^jui)or Aj3, (•jj^; ^^6 ^^^ follow the rule. 3d. — OF VERBS. Ic. The principal derivative verbs in Persian are those called Causal, already mentioned (§. 39). A few verbs are derived from Arabic roots by adding ^oJ^.~; ^» ^jJjJA? "to seek, w send for''; ji^^t <U> " in the manner of a pedestrian, or pawn at chess"; dj^l^SlP "wisely"'*; a3)^> « bravely."" COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 47. The Persian Language abounds with compound words, consisting principally of Substantives and Adjec- tives, in the fonnation of which it bears a considerable SUBSTANTIVES. 69 resemblance to the English and German, We might even say, that, in this respect, it equals or surpasses the Sanskrit and Greek; but the comparison would not be quite correct, as the Persian is void of inflections, and consequently its compounds, though numerous, are not so marked as in the ancient tongues. We shall here endeavour to describe the mode of forming the more useful compounds of the language, in the same order as the preceding paragraph on Derivative Words. SUBSTANTIVES. a. A numerous class of Compound Substantives is formed by the juxta-position of two otber nouns, in the reverse order of the geni- tive case, the sign of the izafai being rejected; as, e6\^ ls^j^^ " cook-house, or kitchen,'' from ^c^j^V " ^^^k,'' and e6\>- " a house/' This is, in fact, equivalent to ly^jjV ^»^^ " the house of the cook,** with the order of the words reversed: so, »\? ^i i " the battle field," from ^ "contest," and jls **a place": in like manner, jUj/^V^ "the asylum of the world, i.e. the royal personage,'* from ^J^ "the world," and jUj "refuge"; so, ft^^Jj. "a day-book," «^U >^ " the book of wisdom," &c. Compounds of this kind are extremely common in English and German, more so, indeed, than in Persian : witness such words as London Bridge, Custom House, Thames Tunnel, and thousands besides. 6. There is a class of Verbal Nouns, not very numerous, consisting, 1st, of two contracted infinitives, connected with the conjunction .; as, %l^j ^p^ "conversation," literally, "speaking and hearing"; cicij«Ju«\ "coming and going," "intercourse." 2dly, A contracted infinitive, with the corresponding root; as, j^jOu-i>- "searching"; JjC-, " Sunday," djjj^ j^ " Monday," «jjJ5i «^ " Tuesday," &c. We may add, with regard to compound substantives in general, that they confer great strength and expressiveness on a language. We no longer view the ideas represented by each member of the com- pound separately, but we conceive the two blended together into one new idea. Thus, ^c^jjV ^^^ '' ^^ house of the cook," and »i\>- i5>-jj V , though of nearly the same import, yet convey very different ideas to the mind ; and the same may be said of all others. ADJECTIVES, OR EPITHETS. /. In these the Persian Language is particularly rich, every writer using them more or less, according to his own pleasure. A very numerous class of epithets is formed by the union of two substantives; as, j;J «SV " having cheeks like the tulip"; (Sr\^JA ''having the fece of a fairy"; J> ^^J^^ "having a heart like stone"; \ ADJECTIVES, OB EPITHETS. 6 1 »^ j5Cm> " having lips (sweet) as sugar." It would be needless to extend the list; we may merely observe that the idea con- veyed by compounds of this sort is, that the person to whom the epithet is applicable is possessed of the object expressed in the second member of the compound, in a degree equal to, or resem- bling, the first. In English we have many instances, in the more familiar style, of this kind of compound ; as, " iron-hearted," " bull- headed," " lynx-eyed,*" &c. g. Another numerous class, similar to the preceding, is formed by prefixing an adjective to a substantive; as, l^jj <— ^S^- "having a fair face"; ^JV CiJb "of pure intention"; J> y±t *'k '"distressed in heart"; J5 ^^ "of a golden pen," an epithet applied to MuUa Muhammad Husain Kashmiri*, the finest writer of the Ta'lik hand at the munificent Court of Akbar, and in all probability the finest that ever lived. The idea conveyed by these compounds is, that the person to whom they apply possesses the object expressed in the second member of the compound, in the state or manner indi- cated by the first. We have many such compounds in English, used in familiar conversation, and Newspaper style, such as " clear- sighted," " long-headed," " sharp-witted," " hard-hearted," &c. h. Perhaps the most numerous class of the epithets is that com- posed of verbal roots joined to substantives or adjectives; as, jS JIp "world-subduing"; JjlG^ «JLsJ "strife-exciting"; Uj\ ^U "giving rest to the soul"; \ - .^ Jn "ravishing the heart"; jj CiJjw^ "moving lightly." Most Grammarians consider the verbal roots in such compounds as contractions of the present participle in * It is impossible to imagine any thing more beautiful of its kind than the penmanship of Mulla Husain. I happen to possess a manuscript of the Bustan of Sa'di, written by him ; and assuredly the perusal of a page thereof makes one view all other fine manuscripts as downright deformity. Mulla Husain was among penmen what Paganini was among fiddlers. 62 ADJECTIVES, OR EPITHETS. \j1 or \Jl, We do, indeed, sometimes find the real participle in use ; as, ^V^\ J^ '* intrepid,**' literally, " heart-bearing (German, herzhxiftY] so, ^J(^j ^^ "moving or waving like a cypress^; but the occurrence of such phrases is very rare, compared with those ending in the verbal root The Greek Language has nu- merous compounds of the same kind, in substance similar to the Persian, such as IpyoXajSo^ "one who undertakes a work,** and linroTp6(l>os " one who rears horses," where we have the noun and verbal root in the simple state, or crude form, with the termination OS superadded ; so that the agreement between the Greek and Persian compound is complete, the latter language having no ter- mination to add. Hence there is no solid reason for calling the verbal roots, in Persian compounds, participles; while, on the contrary, the usq of the teim is objectionable, as it misleads the student. Compound epithets of a similar kind are frequently used by our best English Poets; such as, "the night- tripping fairy"; " the cloud-compelling Jove " ; " the temple-haunting martlet" i. Another class of epithets is compounded of a substantive and a past participle; as, sjo^^L^* "experienced," "one who has seen the world''; xvj ^\ ^jj • y "one who has been tried in battle," i.e. "trained to war"; so, »5^A>- ^ "one who has felt sorrow"; S^l^i ^b "one who has laid a snare"; jjjblTdUsv '^one who has endured aiHiction." ki There is an extensive class of adjectives formed by prefixing the particles b "with, or possessed of"; and ^ " without, or deprived of," to substantives; as, JU b "rich," "possessed of wealth"; jjL«\.b "cheerful, or joyous," an epithet applied to the planet Venus ; so, J> ^ "heartless, or disconsolate'* ; L-ibfli\ ^ "unjust**; *\jj ^ " without need," " He who is above all assistance," an epithet applied to the Almighty, l. The particles Y and ^^ prefixed to nouns and verbal roots. COMPOUND VERBS. 63 form a considerable class of epithets. S literally denotes " little'' ; but in composition it seems almost to convey the idea of '* nothing, or negation"; as, .,: S "of little strength"; ^^ ^^"of little sense," "stupid"; ^^ ^ " eating little," "abstemious"; u-^b ^ " improcurable." The particle jb denotes " equality, or association"; and, like the preceding, is compounded with nouns or verbal roots. Its effect is the same as the Greek a^ka, or the Latin coa\ as, jV Jb " a fellow-traveller, or one who goes on the same road," the same as a/coAot/do^ (from ityia and ice\et;do^) ; so, y^ jb " of the same age," "coeval''; ^g-li Jb " intimate," "sitting together"; jb jb " a playfellow." We may add, in conclusion, that almost all the compounds, of the species described in paragraphs /, g. A, ?, ky and /, may occur either as substantives or adjectives ; hence they may be appropriately classed under the term Epithets or Com- pound Epithets. m. The particle U, prefixed to an adjective, simple or compound, renders it negative; as, \^^ U "impure," from \^^ "pure"; so, • from ^ . ^iiJb " of pure, or sincere intention," comes ^^ ^jjjb b " of wicked intention." It is also prefixed to verbal roots and par- ticiples ; as, ^b b " ignorant," »^«L^ b " not commended," " disre- putable." Sometimes it is prefixed to substantives; as, }i\^ "not according to one's desire," perhaps elliptically for a\5j b ; for we meet with .\^b and .\5jb "worthless," still in use. The particle b has the same effect in Persian as the privative a of the Sanskrit and Greek, the in of the Latin, and the un of the English and German. Finally, in all the preceding compounds we have preserved the component parts separate, though in manuscripts they may be united or not, at the option of the writer. VERBS. n. Persian Verbs, like those of the Sanskrit, Greek, &c., may be compounded with a preposition; as, ^J^l.^ "to come in"; 64 VERBS. fjf<^\^j> ** to rise up." Adverbs may also be prefixed in like manner ; as, ^jwii ji " to sit down" ; ^ JJJ ^b " to soar up- wards"; but in such phrases there is hardly any peculiarity deserving the name of a compound. 0. The verbs ^y^, J^^^, o^y^* ^^ O^^ ^® frequently used with substantives or adjectives, in the general sense of "making'"; as, i^^/J^ "to make an order,"* "to command ""; /.yv^\*4 >. w'- "to make content," "to satisfy*"; ^^^m^ OlfljJ^ "to attend," "to notice""; ^:>j^ &iJ\lxo " to peruse (a letter)/' The verbs ^Jliib and ^^^ are occasionally used in the same sense ; as, JJuS»b L_JU "to make search""; ^:>j ^^ "to express an opinion."" The verbs ^'^j^ and ^ Jj^ are used in the sense of "to suffer,"" "to experience""; as, ^^jy^ ^ "to grieve""; , jo^ CLf^ "^ suflFer affliction."" In this general acceptation, the verb .%v>» "to see" occasionally encroaches on some of the other senses ; as, ^^ JJ^ t^y " to smell,"" literally, " to see or experience fragrance." p. A knowledge of the Persian compounds will be absolutely neciessary, in order to peruse with advantage the finest productions of the language. The poeffs in general make frequent use of such terms; and several grave historians indulge freely in the practice. In the version of Pilpay's Fables, entitled. The Anvari Suhaili, by Husain Vaiz, there are at least as many compounds as sentences ; and the same may be said of the Tales of Inayat Ullah, called, The Bahar i Danish : but the perfection of the system will be found in the commencement of a Persian epistle, wherein it is a point of etiquette to employ a great number of fine-sounding words, that ifiean nothing. The h\mnen^ part of the Letter is generally disposed of in a few lines, at the conclusion. ( 65 ) SECTION V. ON SYNTAX. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 48. In the preceding Sections we have treated of the letters, syllables, and words of the Persian Language. We now come to the most important part of the subject — the construction of sen- tences, or, in other .words, the rules for speaking and writing the language correctly. We have hitherto taken for granted that the Student is acquainted with the ordinary terms of Grammar, and is able to distinguish the various parts of speech (common to all languages) from one another. It is probable, however, that he may not have turned his attention to the analysis of sentences, which ought to form a preliminary step to the Syntax of every foreign tongue. On this account, we request his attention to the following general, or rather universal principles of language, an acquaintance with which will enable him to comprehend more fully some of the rules which we are about to state. a. A simple sentence consists of three parts ; viz. a nominative, or agent ; a verb ; and an attribute, or complement ; as, ^^ Fire is hot" ; " Fire consumes wood." In the first sentence, fire is the nominative, or subject of affirmation ; hot is the attribute, or that which is affirmed of the subject, Jire; and the verb is serves to express the affirmation. Again, in the sentence ^^Fire consumes wood," fire is the nominative, or agent, consumes is the verb, and wood is the object It appears, then, that the shortest sentence must consist of three words, expressed or understood ; and it will be found that the longest is always reducible to three distinct parts, which may be considered as so many compound words. For K 66 GENERAL PRINCirLES OF LANGUAGE. example : ^^ The scorching fire of the thunder- cloud utterly con- sumes the tall and verdant trees of the forest" In this sentence, the words fire^ consumes^ and trees, are qualified or restricted by particular circumstances : still, the complex term, ^^ The scorching fire of the thunder-cloud" is the nominative; " utterly destroys** is the verb ; and " the tall and verdant trees of the forest" is the object." Tlie Sanskrit Language, the most philosophic of human tongues, or, as the Brahmans not unreasonably say, " the language of the Gods," would easily and elegantly express tbe abave sentence in three words. '^The scorching fire of the thunder-cloud" wight » be thrown into one compound in the nominative case ; the verb ^^ utterly consumes" would be expressed by a preposition in com- position with the verb to consume; and ^^ the tall and verdant trees of thjQ forest" might be formed into one compound in the accusative plura]^ b. Although every simple sentence is reducible to three distiiMit} parts, yet it is not easy to find a general term that will accurately apply to any of these parts except the verb. When the sentence is expressed by the verb ^^to be," the three parts may be called, the nominative, the verb, and attribute; as, ^^ James is diligent" Wh^t the sentence is expressed by any other neuter verb, the parts may be called nominative, verb, and complement; as, ^^ James went firom England, to India." Lastly, when the sentence has an active verb, the parts are agents verb, and object; as, ^^ James purchased a horse." Perhaps the terms least liable to objection wiD.be nominative, verb, and complement ; yet even these would be found inadmissible whea applied to the Hindu3tani, the Marhatti, and. severali other dided» of that class. In Persian, however, the latter terms are not iioi^pU- cable : we shall therefore employ them in this sense in the next paragraph, when treating of the arrangement of words. c. A compound' sentence, or period, consists of two or more simple sentences connected' by a conjunction, expressed or under-^ stood ; as, ^^ Knowledge fills the mind with entertaining views^ and ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 67 administers to it a pei*petual ^Btim of gratifidttioiiB : it giv^s eas6 to solitude ; fiUs a public station with suitable abilitiles ; and^ when it is mixed with complacency, it adds lustre to such as are possessed of it." It will be a useful exercise for the Student to analyze, by himself, the above compound sentence; which consists of five simple sentences, in all of which, knowledgey or its substitute it, is the nominative. The last two clauses make but one simple sentence, for they amount merely to this: "Knowledge, mixed with com- placency, adds lustre to such as are possessed of it." d. It may happen that the nominative to the verb is a short sentence ; as, " What he says is of no consequence." So the com- plement may also be a sentence ; as, " I know not what he thinks." These sentences are equivalent to, " His speech, or speaking, is of no consequence"; and, "I know not his thoughts." It may also happen that the nominative, or the complement, or both, may be qualified with a relative sentence, which is equivalent to an adjec- tive. When such relative sentences or clauses occur they must not be confounded with a compound sentence. Thus, " God, who is Eternal and Invisible, created the world, which is perishable and visible," may at first sight appear a compound sentence ; which is not the case, for it is equivalent to, " The Eternal and Invisible God created the perishable and visible world." ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 49. As a preliminary step to our remarks on Persian Syntax, we tnay briefly notice the manner in which the words of that language are usually arranged in the formation of a sentence. In prose compositions the foUoVfing rule generally holds ; viz. In a simple sentence, the nominative is put first; then the object, or comple- ment ; and, lastly, the verb. Thus, in the sentence, " The Moghul purchased the parrot," the collocation of the words in Persian will be " The Moghul — the parrot — purchased," or jj^ ]ji^y^ J*^- Here the Moghul is the nominative, beginning the sentence; 68 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. ]j^^, the parrot, is the complement, or object, in the accusative case, governed by the verb j^ pwrchased, ivhich comes last So in the sentence, "Taimur came to India,*' ju«1 ^ll^jjjjb aj %9^ ; Taimur is the nominative, came (o^\) is the verb, which is placed at the end of the sentence, and to India is its complement It may happen that the subject, or the object of the sentence, or both, may be restricted by, or in combination with, various circumstances of time, place, motive, &c. ; and the verb qualified by an adverb : still the above arrangement holds good ; the nominative, with all its restricting circumstances, coming iirst ; then the complement ; and, lastly, the verb, with its qualifying word immediately before it Words and phrases denoting time, manner, &a, when they apply to the whole sentence, and not to any particular part of it, are placed first; as, C^j J\m J^jij ^jji i^j^ji t^j, "One day, in a certam city, a darwesh went to the shop of a certain trader." When the complement of a verb is a complete sentence it is put U tJUii i*. , J « That man said, 'Do you consider me a fool?' " So In the sentence, ^ jJl »3\:il j\ ^/^\0^:> j^Uj &^ jo^ S^V^^ ij^^k " A certain king saw in a dream that^the whole^of his teeth had dropped out," where the phrase "the whole of his teeth had dropped out" is the complement to the verb « saw," or <* saw in a dream." When the object is qualified by a relative sentence, the object is placed before the verb, and the qualifying phrase after, as in the beginning of the Gulistan : 3^ ^J^l ^j^\ d^JJj «i ^Jjoi \^ ^J\i^lb " I have heard of a king who issued^the order (made the**signal) for the executing of a certain captive." In like manner, in "They relate of one of the kings of Persia Wt he "extended the hand of usurpation over the property of the people"; the relative phrase comes last. a. In further illustration of the preceding general rule, together with its occasional exceptions, let us analyze the simple story of the ANALYSIS OP FABLE, pp. 22 & 71. 69 Vills^er and his Ass, page 22; and to make the matter less difficult, We shall still employ the Roman character. First sentence : DUi- kdne khare dasht — " A villager had an ass." This sentence is ex- actly like the first quoted above, only the object (khare) has not the sign ra attached to it, which, as we shall see hereafter, is not always necessary to distinguish the accusative case. Second sentence : j4z sababi bekharfif khar ra bara-^e charidan babaghe sot middd— " For the sake of economy (non-expenditure), (he) gave its head {L e. its liberty) to the ass, for the purpose of grazing in a certain garden." In this sentence the subject, the verb, and the object are complex, or accompanied by circumstances. The nominative is, <snd-e an, which qualifies the whole sentence. . Khare digar ki dar dn nazdiki bud is the nominative of the first sentence, qualified * EASY FABLE FOB EXERCISE. 71 by a relative clause, which the Sanskrit would have expressed by a compound adjective. Ninth sentence : Baghban ora shinakht, wa danist hi In ktst — *^The gardener recognised him, and knew who this was." A compound sentence : the complement to the verb danist, m the last clause^ is M in Jctsty which is placed after the verb. Tenth sentence : Az darakht farod amad, wa an khar ra bisyar lat ba-zad — ^^ From the tree he eame down, and very much did beat that ass with a stick." Eleventh sentence : Az tnjd khiradmandan 4 ffi0a and ki *^kharan ra khdmoslu 6iA"-^"Gti this subject the wise have said, ^ That for the asses silence is best.' " It is needless to adiji any remark on the last two sentences, which present no pecor- liarity that we have not already noticed. 50. We here subjoin the preceding story in the native character, which will afford the Student an easy example fbr his first lesson in translating. He ought, at the same time, to ascertain the exact meaning of each word, from the Vocabulary, and be able to parse the whole of them, by a reference to the preceding portion of the Grammar. In like manner let him analyze and translate Stories I. and JI. (pp. 'ZO and 21) ; after whidi he may proceed to the Se- lections at the end of the work. When he has read, and carefully a^alyzedf from fifteen to twenty pages of the Seleptions, he may then with advantage peruse the rules of Syntax which follow this page, but not till then : for we hold it to be downright absurdity to make a person read the Syntax of a language before he knows a little of the language itself. ^ J (jIa*3 CL^^ ^ ^ #< p^ c ^ . . o * JO^^jj* ji «^ c^5^j j\ J JOiJ ^ \jjJ>^ ^ 72 FABLE FOR EXERCISE. J C^^J>J Sjj^ C^j^ ;j,\Afc3 ^Jj^ (F) •ji^^ J^yi y^ ^"^J^ J)ji "-r^ ^J c\ ^y. Jj^ sZ^y^i ^r^^ ij^ («) LSJ^ J J^^ J^ C^) * *^J cA>^ <>^ J^ Ltt? «^j^ c)^^^j ^J'^^y Jf^^ cJfj^ *fj^i c ^^^\ ^ o^b J o^\U» y ^,Up\i (^) G We may here observe, that the preposition ^ ba, "to,** "at,** " in," " by," which, in the preceding story, we have written separate^ is frequently joined to its substantive ; and the same may be said of the prefix ^ of the verb ; as also of the negative particle «j no, " not," whicli, it seems optional to write separately or unite with the verb. When to and 26 are joined to the following word, the weak 5 is suppressed ; thus, we may write \_^f^ 9J or u^dj " by night" Lastly, the termination \. ra, the sign of the Dative and Accusative, may be joined to the last letter of a word, or written separately; thus, UIapU or V 10^^ baghban-raf " to the gardener." ( 73 ) CONSTRUCTION OP SUBSTANTIVES, ADJECTIVES, AND PREPOSITIONS. 51. As the adjectives in Persian are all indeclinable, the learner is freed from all anxiety on the score of Concord : he has merely to remember, that, as a general rule, adjectives foUow the noun which they qualify, and the noun takes the mark of the izafat, as explained in pages 27 and 31; thus, ^^-^^ij^Jj "the sincere minister"; ^^ ^^J " ^ '>ea^tiful face" ; ^j ; < ^ ^ ^^^ " a ringlet with the fragrance of musk." a. In poetry it is not uncommon to place the adjective first, exactly as in English; thus, Firdausi has 9\J^ O^d j^ j^^^jl^J^ ** an intelligent counsellor by the hand of the king"; so, 5Vi>3b Jjui-ijb " a wise king." When the adjective thus precedes the substantive (which sort of construction is, in Persian, called " the inverted epithet"), the mark of the izafdt is not used. 6. We have already explained (pp. 50 and 51) the nature of com- pound adjectives : we may further observe here, that any noun with a particle prefixed to it may become an expressive epithet; as, JUb 3-« " a man possessed of wealth." Many epithets consist of three or more words; as, y r ^ ? y^ \ ^ (jjJXo "a country taken in war"; so ^A^ &-5-i>- ^» JjJ "a slave with a ring in his ear." So in the Bastan of Sa'di we have ^^iS /o^J t> ^J^ (•i^ "The Allwise, who endows the tongue with speech"; where the sub- stantive j^^ has the rest of the line for its epithet. In fact, there is no limit to the extent to which the composition of epithets may be carried in this language; and it is necessary that, in every instance, the Student should be able to distinguish them, that he may add the mark of the izafai to the preceding noun, which they serve to qualify. L 74 ADJECTIVES. c. Numeral adjectives precede the nouns to which they belong ; and what is altogether at yariance with our notions of concord, the noun is generally put in the singular number ; as, JU> J^ ^^ a hun- dred years," instead of \^U> Jw^ ; so, (A>«j^ »3 "ten darweshes," instead of m^j j^ ; ^^ which expressions the numeral word prefixed is sufficient to indicate the plurality of the noun, without adding the usual termination. In fact, we hare frequently heard in our own language, among the common people, such phrases as " five pound," "ten mile*': and the expressions, " a hundred horse,*' "three hun- dred cannon," &c. are allowed to be good £nglish. d. Sometimes a phrase from the Arabic, constructed according to the grammatical rules of that language, may be introduced as an epithet to a Persian substantive; thus, 0\«-PjJ^ ^^^^'*^uH5J^ "a derwesh, whose prayers are answered"; so, Jj ^M j^l^ 2^-^ "a man sincere in speech"; ^j^\ ^S "generous of soul." e. The adjective pronouns ^\ and ^\ precede their substantives; and there are a few adjectives of a pronominal nature which may optionally precede or follow; as, f ^ ^ "all"; Jo$ "other"; ja>- " some or several" : thus, ^^1*3^ au^Jb or rt ^ /^Ui^ " all the people"; so,^^^ ^ or ^^Jk> "^® ^^^^^ woman"; wXi^Jjj or j . . ja>- " some or several days." 52. Our word than, after the comparative decree, is expressed in Persian by j^ ; thus, j «^ •. j^ J^^jj " ™<^re splendid than the cheek of day" ; so,j^^yj\ J^ ^ ^.jC^^j^ Lr4?5 ^> ^^r^^^ U liiiU ^^'i " O king, we are, in this world, less than you as to pomp, but more happy in our enjoyments." The adjective sj " good," is often used in the positive form when denoting comparison, as in the following £ ceo ^ ic J maxim from the ^\ij6 of Sa'di : jjJol&Jui Ca-»^ j^ 9^ -^SCL^ad'^^ ^j^ " Falsehood, fraught with good advice, is preferable to the truth. PREPOSITIONS. 75 when tending to excite strife'*; so in the following sentence, J^y^\^j\ iO CiJjo ^^ Ca-j\ JcJ ^:\ iO JV^ "Silence is better than evil speaking, and speaking well is better than silence." a. The superlative degree, when used, governs the genitive, as in our own language; thus, ^U:>yo ^JLCjj "the best of men"; so, Ca*#j\ •>- ul^y V [JtJ^ ^ 0^,y " They say that the meanest of animals is the ass." The same rule applies to superlative forms from the Arabic ; as, L_jl3^ l^jJ^\ " the most illustrious of the prophets." 6. Sometimes the superlative is employed merely in an intensive sense, like a simple adjective; in which case the izofai is not used, as in the couplet — " I will not say that I have given an exceedingly noble lady to a most highly-renowned husband." 53» In Persian, the particles called prepositions are, strictly speaking, very few in number, probably not more than those already given in page 51, No. '42: viz. j^ "from"; b«with"; j> « on" ; »j> « in," « into" ; ^ " without " ; \5 " till," « as far as" ; ji "except," "besides"; and .3 "in"; which invaluably take the simple or nominative form of a noun or pronoun after them; as, jVgJSj \5 3\jJ^j\ "from Baghdad to Shiraa:"; C^ ^l^y V " I will go with thee." Such other words as are used like prepo- sitions are really nouns, and in construction require the izafat; as, j^\m 3ji " near the minister," which is an elliptical form of expres- sion for^jitj 3p dJ "in the vicinity of the minister"; so (jj^j j»->J "under the earth"; iA^-mJ ^J^\f "above his head"; ^^ vJ^^-J "before me," that is, ^ (j^ j^ "^"^ front of me." The Student will do well in committing to memory the simple prepositions, and 76 PRONOUNS. in recollecting that the rest require the ixafctt when they govern a noun. a. It may be proper to obsenre that the partide j>' is a species of noun, denoting ^< other," ^^ else," and consequently we should expect it to be followed by the izqfat ; which, however, is not the case; thus, in the following line from Sa'di — ^^ Pity it were he should speak other than (what is) good" — we know, from the metre, that js>. has no izafat. We may farther mention, that the particle \3 is more generally used as a conjunction, with various significations, which it is beyond our province here to detail PRONOUNS. 54. We shall now treat more particularly of those classes of pro- nouns, the explanation of which we passed over in Nos. 32 and 34 ; the others having nothing peculiar in their construction. The following may be denominated affixed^ because, with the exception of the 3d plural, they are always joined to some word or othar in the sentence in which they are employed. SINGULAA. 1. M — my or me. 2. O-^ " thy or thee.* ^ ("his, her, its," or ) ' ^ { " him, her, it" J FLUKAL. ^U "our or us." ^ " your or you. .*\ii ''their or them.** When these pronominal terminations are joined to nouns they generally correspond with our possessives, my, thy, &c; as, J3 "my heart"; C^oll/ "thy book"; ;Ji^ "his, her, or its head" : the plural terminations are very rarely used, their place being supplied by the nom. pi. of the personal pronouns employed as nouns; thus, U ^/l^J^ "our hearts or hearts of us"; LJ5> iJ^J^^ AFFIXED PRONOUNS. 77 "your horses or horses of you"; ^Ai^S JU- "the condition of them." When the noun ends in b imperceptible, the terminations (•, O, (ji, become J, 0\, and ^\ ; as, J «^U. «my robe," &c. : and if the noun ends in 1 or j long, they become ^, C-o, (jl> ; as, ^,b "my foot"; C-Oji "thy hair"; (ji^, "his or her face." These are euphonic principles, similar in their nature to those already detailed in p. 4*7. 6. with respect to the verbal terminations added to substantives, adjectives, and participles. 55. When the terminations ^—^ O — , tf^—, are joined to the persons of a verb, they generally correspond with the dative or accusative case of the personal pronouns; as, C^w«Oo> ^^ I saw thee"; ^jLtJLfiJ " I said to him." It appears, then, that these affixes may be employed to denote either the possessives my, thy, his, &c., or the dative and accusative, me, thee, &c., according to circumstances. When employed in the latter sense, they may be joined not only to the verb which governs them, but to any word in the sentence, with the exception of the simple prepositions, already noticed, and a few of the conjunctions, as , " and," b "or," &c, ; thus, >^ Ub^ V^> " the porter did not admit me," or, verbatim, " the porter to me guidance not made"; so vy^ (j^-^ ^j-A»- "the earth has so much consumed it." In instances of this kind the Student must be guided by the context; as, obj3, in the first of the above examples, may also mean "my porter": but when Sa'di (from whom the expression is taken) states, in the sentence immediately preceding, "that he went to wait on the great man^^ the true meaning of the expression will be obvious. 56. The invariable word ^J^^ ia/ Persian, corresponds with our reciprocal pronoun nelf; as, ^^ ^y* " I myself" ; :>^ jj " thou thyself," &c. It may also be the nominative to any person of the verb, the verbal termination sufficiently shying the sense; as, 78 REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS. ^li. >•>- "I myself went"; jouJ. :>•>- "they themselves went." The usage of the Persian language requires the employment of >^, on certain occasions, as a substitute for a possessive pronoun ; thus, O-ij 2>«->- ^«Jl>- «-^ jSjj " the goldsmith went to his own house," literally, "to the house of self"; aJw«\ ^ ^^ ^Vj^ c;* " I was coming from my garden or from garden of self." a. The following is a general rule for the employment of >•>.. If, in a simple sentence, a personal pronoun in an oblique case (as, me, ihee^ of me, or my, &c.) be required, and if it be of the same person with the nominative of the sentence, the place of such pronoun must be supplied in Persian by >^ ; thus, " I am writing my letter," j»-J>y ^ >•>- la->- r^, i-e. "I write the letter of (my) self"; so V \^y^ (•^'^ J^ " Zaid beat his (own) slave"; Jjui^ i^ ^«3\^ M^^ " ^'^^ people went to their own houses." 6. It is almost unnecessary to state, that when the two pronouns are not of the same person, or rather when the latter pronoun does not belong to the nominative of the sentence, ^^ cannot be used ; as, " Zaid beat your slave," >: \\^ ^^ jj>: ; so, " Zaid beat his (meaning another person's) slave," v \^-^ ^^LP Jl^. We may observe, that instead of 3^, the words *iSj>«>-, {:X^^^* ^^^ ^^ are sometimes used : #j^:u^ also occurs, but only in the 3d pers. sing.; as, aJJ> ^ji>^ ^«3\^ .> ^Joj "I saw Zaid in his own house" ; literally, "I saw Zaid in the house of his self." This sen- tence, by the way, would at first sight seem to be at variance with part of the preceding rule ; but the expression amounts to this, " I saw that Zaid was in his own house," or " I saw Zaid, who was in his own house." c. We find in the last London edition of the Gulistan, Book III. Ap. 8, the following suspicious reading : '^S yw^\ t^j^ U^ij^ ^^ '% RELATIVES. 79 ^^ One of the sages made a prohibition to his son," where the use of the pronoun (j5^— is wrong. We hare consulted nine manuscripts of the original in our possession, not one of which has the pronoun ^~ . In M. Semelet's edition of the Gulistan, printed at Paris, 1828, the same error is repeated, although the work pretends to great critical accuracy. 67. With regard to the demonstrative pronouns ^\ and ^\, we hare little further to add. (Vide No. 33.) When the name of an irrational being, or of an inanimate object, has been mentioned, and reference is made to it afterwards by a pronoun, as he^ she, it^ they, &c., ^\ and ^\, with their plurals, are generally used, seldom •\ or AiJ\', thus, C^Uo\ ^J\ jyo^ CJ& jP^ "The lion said. The painter of it (alluding to a picture) is (was) a man"; so jjjiU Ij^Ip ^\ Jj»j\5 :\ L^ii- "The wise men were at a loss in the explaining of it." a. The phrases ^^ ^^, ^ ^, or ^i,* ^^J^, y ^\ j\, &c., are '^ ^ ? "^ ^ ,^ equivalent to our words mine, thine, &c.; as, iJLt^^ L:)^y^^ Juum^ " The throne of Egypt is thine" ; so in Story 71 of the Selections we have the phrases, ^^ t^ ^\j\ Jj^ *^^ {J>^ " Whose house was this originaUy?" ^j^ J\j\ CJ£ "He said, That of my grand- father's." jji &^ J :\ CUJSi J<6 .\ ^^ " When he died, whose did it become?" g^jo ^\j\ cl^ii "He said. That of my father's," &c. 58. The words «/ and ^^^ in Persian, generally correspond, in the nominative case, with our relative pronouns who and which; but Dr. Lumsden shews that they are merely connectives, and have the personal pronouns understood after them; thus, Sa'di, has CUib JSp «^ mO^P V t:>\: iii^ " I saw a prince who possessed wisdom" : after *^ the personal pronoun j\ is understood ; as. ^r 80 RELATIVES. CO CiJ^b AiP j^ «^ " that he possessed wisdom." As the personal pronoun, however, is generally left out, the particles a^ and &>. have been considered, by some oriental grammarians, as relatives. The following sentence from the Gulistan, to which many others might be added, confirms Dr. Lumsden's views on this subject: ^ ^j9^ 5?^ J^3JJ3^ y^L5^^ " ^^ ^^^ ^^^ yxxxrcA (sets up) a camphor candle in a clear day''; where y is a contraction of j^ «/; literally, " The fool, that he bums," &c, where the mere «^, if it were a relative, would have equally answered the metre. a. When the Persians have occasion to express a sentence, con- taining what, in European Grammars, is called a relative pronoun in an oblique case, they employ the particle «^ together with the corresponding personal pronoun, as may be seen in the follow- ing examples from the Gulistan : — Ist, In the Genitive Case : ^< Many a renowned personage have they deposited beneath the dust, of whose existence (literally, that of his existence) no trace (now) remains on the face of the earth." Again, Sa'di says — ^ OuSj j^ ytS^^ j^j 9^ J^^ ^ «3 ^< " I am not he whose back you wiU see in the day of battle ;" or, literally, ^ that yon should see my back." 2dly, In the Dative : ^^^jJi^ Cj^i ^ (jo-^ 9^^j\ *^ O (thou) to whom my person speared worthless ! " literally, "that my person appeared to thee." 3dly, In the Accusative: yuo d^ (j^ J^«^ &J^ /j^ «^ ^2)^ ^' ^^ whom I beheld all fat, like the pistachio nut;" literally, " He that I saw him." 4thly, In the Ablative: C^j^S >»- ^dola^ l^ j^ «53^ " That (proceeding) in which there is an idea of danger." 6. The compound terms gSrJb and &>^, when unaccompanied by a substantive, correspond to oXa words whosoever and whatsoever ; the former generally denoting rational beings, and the latter infe- rior animals, or lifeless matter ; thus, INTERROGATIVES. 81 O^j^ ^^^ J^j^ if^j-i^ 00^ J^Ji CU^!) «^ " Whoever shall wash his hands of life, the same will utter whatever he has on his mind." If we could trust the genuineness of the following sentence from Sa'di, it would appear that &>^ may sometimes be applied to persons as well as things ; thus, in the Second Book of the Gulis- tan (Ap. 37), an experienced old Doctor recommends to his pupil the following ingenious method of getting rid of his friends : " Whosoever are poor, to them give a small loan ; and of those who are rich ask something" : but MSS. by no means agree in this reading; and our finest MS. has it thus, " To the poor lend a little, and of the rich ask something." c. When the substantive is expressed after jb, the particle »5^ may follow, whether the substantive be animate or inanimate; as, «yjjL»^ " every thing which." When the termination ^j majhul (p. 30. a.) is added to a noun, and a/'or &^ follows, the substantive is thereby rendered more definite or specific ; as, ^j Ji^ ^^yL Jci^J^ '(C^j J-^ "Envy is such a (peculiar) torment, that it is impossible to escape firom its pangs, except by death." We may observe in conclusion, on the subject of the relative, or rather the want of a relative^ in Persian, that if a/' and »». are to be considered as mere connective particles (a matter on which our researches do not warrant us to give a decisive opinion), it need not be wondered at that the rules re- specting their agreement with their antecedents should be liable to many deviations. 59. We have already stated (No. 34) that a/' and &>. are used as interrogatives ; the former applicable to persons, and the latter to irrational beings : but if the noun be expressed, &>. may be used m both instances; as, ^au^ "What man?" The word Jj^ M 82 CONCOBD OF VERBS. is also used as an interrogative : it is applicable to every gender and number; as, y^ Jj^ "What or Which man?" .K a\\}S "What or Which business?" aT and «>-. when used interro- gatively, are to be considered as substantives singular or plural, according to the nouns which they represent; as, jjib sS u-**^^ i^\ "Whose horse is that?" O^J^ i/^ )/ "To whom are they speaking?" v>jj^ ^J^^ "Who are they?" ^^o^\ s^ j^ :\ o ^ ^ " On account of what are you come ?" jj. \^ " For what did you go?" The interrogative particle \j\ corresponds with the Latin an, num, Sec; as, Cj^\ SJ^^ slSi^b bt ^n rex veni^? "Is the King arrived?" CONCORD OF VERBS. 60. If the nominative to a verb, in Persian, be expressive of rational beings, or of living creatures in general, the verb agrees with it in number and person, as in our own language ; also, two or more nouns in the singular, denoting animals, require the verb to be put in the plural number; as, jijjLifj /oV^W "The brothers were vexed"; 03:>j-»ij^j\ JJUj>- ^VyW "The animals of the forest made a noise"; 0^^ )j>^, }^^ $\y " The goldsmith and the carpenter seized the images." 61. When two or more inanimate nouns have a common verb, the latter is generally put in the singular, as in the following lines from Sa'di: "Although silver and gold be produced from stone, yet every stone will not yield gold and silver." jJJjb eui^ cJ^J VH^ ^V *^^fi^ {2^ ^^ " Until a man hath spoken, his defects and his skill are concealed." 62. We have already mentioned, that when a numeral adjective CONCORD OF VERBS. 83 precedes a noun, the latter does not require the plural termination : but if the noun denote rational beings, and be the subject of a verb, the verb is put in the plural ; as, Jax*-i4 ^^^^ j^ U^-Jj^ *^ ^^ Ten darweshes will sleep on one blanket." Irrational animals, and especially inanimate things, generally take the verb in the singular; as, jji^W <->*^^j^ 0^ "A hundred thousand horses were ready"; so, :jy e>l^-^J^J »i;^ j^ j^ " There were two thousand rooms and a thousand vestibules." a. Arabic plurals, introduced into Persian, follow a similar rule ; that is, if they denote animals, and more particularly rational beings, the verb is put in the plural : but inanimate nouns generally take the singular; as, jo^ y*; q ^ \^^ " The wise men have said"; Jo ^^ U OU ^y ^?^ ^^ J\ ^l^ ^ J^ j\ « By the ap- proach of spring, and the passing by of December, the leaves of our life come to a close." h. The classical scholar will observe that there is a resemblance between the concord of a Persian verb with its nominative, and that of the Greek ; the plurals of the neuter gender, in the latter lan- guage, requiring the verb to be in the singular. The Persian has another peculiarity, not unlike the German; viz. when inferiors speak to or of their superiors, the verb is employed in the plural, generally in the third person. Thus a servant, in speaking of his CO p master, would say, jo^ &!}. /^i^ »^^ u-*^\-^ " The master of the house is (are) gone out." So, in Story 26, we have a similar con- struction, viz. U^ »S Juui»\ J6 ji jO sS jJuLjb j\^j\^ »U> ^l^ ^^ Your Majesty is a great glutton, having left neither dates nor stones"; literally, "The Asylum of the universe are a great glutton," &c. This style, however, does not seem to have belonged to the classic period of the language. ( 84 ) GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 63. The only peculiarity in the govemment of verbs, in Persian, is, that a transitive or active verb does not always require, as in Greek and Latin, that its complement should have the termination of the accusative case ; thus, jU^t-->L5> jPU*> LSU* " O cup-bearer, bring a goblet of wine;" where \^\Jjii\^ has not the sign of the accusative case affixed. So in the following lines from Sa'di : " I have brought (only) an excuse for the defect of my service ; for in my obedience I have no claim: the wicked express contrition for their sins; the holy beg forgiveness on the score of their (imperfect) devotions.'* In this extract the four words, excuse, claim contrition^ 3,nd forgiveness, have not the sign of the accusative case added to any of them in the original. Again, in the following sentences the accusative case is accompanied by its appropriate c o C c > sign : jJlI->-\o3^ l> . JJ V^ " They threw the slave into the sea** ; OJib^^ slG ^y^ b \^i.lXj^ uMj;^ " '^® darwesh preserved the stone in his possession." Lastly, in the following extract from the Story, p. 71, we have the same word used in different places, first without, and then with the V ; thus, Jo;^jju« ^^ ib ^J^:^ * d^b (jr^ ^jlSjb^ "A certain villager had an ass. The people of the garden used to be^t the ass." In the first sentence we have cJiib ^5 j>-, without the V ; and in the second we have j^^Ijuq );»>•, where the V is added. Hence we see that sometimes the object takes the termi- nation L and sometimes not; and the following appear to us to GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 85 be the general principles that regulate the insertion or omission of that termination : a. When we wish to render the object definite, emphatic, or particular, V is added ; for instance, .U-> t-A-S> signifies, ** Bring wine"; but .Uj \jL^\jJ^ means, "Bring the wine." So in the Story, C>uib ^J^ ^\m^ " A villager had an ass," the V is not needed; but in the next sentence, jo:>Lju« \)r^ ^V ci)^*?/* "The people of the garden were beating the ass," the V is used, because the object is now more definite. b. It is a general rule to add V to the object of an active verb, whenever any ambiguity would arise from its omission ; or, in other words, when the action described by the verb is such as might be " performed by either the agent or object ; thus, y^ VXjd S.\ " The goldsmith struck the carpenter" ; C yy^r^ ^\JtP^ ^V* " The man slew the lion" ; jc-LCi-o \J\J^^ j^y^jJiA *' Iskandar overthrew Dara," or, as the Latin Grammar hath it, Alexander Darium vicit. In these examples, if we omit the V we are left merely to infer the sense from the arrangement, which, in ordinary prose, might form a sufiicient criterion, but not in verse. c. When the object of an active verb is a personal pronoun, or its substitute 5>^, the termination Lis always used; as, j^Ui»j*%3 Lc " Dost thou not know me ?" ^JJ^ 13 " I saw thee" ; ^yjJLiS \j^\ "They seized him"; \la^ j \. j \.U .b»Uli "Preserve us from the path of error" ; C-^A y^^ ^ )i^j^ L>**^ m^ " Such a person has killed himself." d. Having stated what we consider the general principles which regulate the insertion of V as the sign of the accusative case, the rule for its non-insertion may be inferred ; viz. the insertion of V is not necessary whenever the nature of the sentence is such as to 86 THE TEHMINATION \j . enable the reader or bearer to comprehend the sense clearly without it, except when we wish to particularize or limit the object, or when it is a personal pronoun. Lastly, in such compound verbs as we men- tioned in p. 64. 0, like ^^^^ J^^ &c., the \ is never added to the substantive. 64. The termination \ is added to a substantive to denote the dative case as well as the accusative. On such occasions its inser- tion is indispensably necessary ; as, jsju^ C1a>\^ \j j 0^ c^ li'^^jLiuo ^^Jt> ^^ Let them give a half to each woman." If the accusative necessarily require \.^ the dative must be formed by a preposition, as «j " to" ; thus, jjjb^ oj (3)^ *^ L J*^ " Let them give the ruby to that woman" ; so, » j^ ^^.^ \j u-^lsJ ^^ Give me the book." In these last examples, the words l^Ix5^ and J^ being definite, require the addition df \'; and the dative cases are formed by prefixing the particle ^j 6a to the pronouns ^ and ^\, 65. When the object is in a state of construction with another noun, or with an adjective, and from its nature requires V^ that termination is added to the latter noun or adjective; as follows; aJu>3 \j j-^j j-^ v>->) " I saw Zaid, the son of the minister"; so, \j^.»aA CJJS CajIj^ ^"^y^ C^^rJ^ " la Paradise you will THE TERMINATION \j . 87 not find the rosy bowers of Musalla." In this rule there is much sound philosophy; for when one substantive governs another in the genitive, the two are to be considered as one modified noun ; thus, in the following sentence, from the 1st Book of the Gulistan, jui^ ^\yM \j ^or^^iSii^ :>y^ ^^UiLj ^jUy. ^^j^ vjr^. ^^ One of the kings of Khurasan saw in a dream Sultan Mahmud (the son) of Sabaktagin," the three words ^^i^iIoms ^y^ m^^^ are viewed as one modified noun, and the termination \ is very properly placed at the end. In like manner, a substantive, accom- panied by an adjective, is to be considered as a single specified noun; and, in construction, the termination V^ when requisite, is placed at the end; thus, :>jruJ^ \j»J^.^J^ ^^ ^\S"The Judge summoned the neighbouring woman." So, however complex the adjective may be, the V is placed at the end; thus, from Sa'dl, OuJ^llJ^^ \ji:>y^j\ ,LU>' j »J^,3 ^^ (i)V j' "^^ ^ " They sent forward several individuals from among men who had seen service and had experienced war" : here the complement or object of the verb, Jo^^^^^mW, consists of the whole preceding sentence ; and the V is affixed last of all, the more to define that complex object, now viewed as a single whole. 66. It remains for us to notice a few verbal expressions which some Grammarians consider as tenses, and which we omitted in the paradigm, as of small importance. In Dr. Lumsden's Grammar, Vol. I. p. 93, &c., we have two tenses of a potential mood, present and past, formed respectively by adding the contracted infinitive to the aorist and preterite of the verb ; ^JUJ\J (root i^S) " to be able"; as, C*^ (^\H " "^ ^"^ ^^^® *^ S^»'' ^^ "^ ^^^ g®"5 Cjij JLj|y " I was able to go," or " I could go." But, in truth, we are more inclined to consider these as sentences than tenses. In a large and closely written Persian manuscript, which treats of the grammar of that language, called the Miftdh-ut-tarktb, compiled. 4^ ^ I ft 88 AUXILIARY VERBS. as the writer tells us, by Shewa Ram^ poetically named Jauharj there is a tense called the Continuative Imperative, or Imperative of duration, formed by prefixing the particle ^ to the ftiture perfect ; thus, from jJ5>b «JLi: " He shall have gone,'* comes vjjib tSij ^ " Let him continue going." This tense is also called, *• according to Jauhar, litimrari-e-Maxnun (^j^jja^ {Jj^r^^% which is a sort of imperfect or continuative potential; as, ^^He may be going"; the meaning of it in Hindustani being given, j^ ^^ \5W. ^ The ordinary imperative may denote continuity by prefixing ^ ; " Nightly at the threshold of God continue giving forth the gift of thy unworthiness ; and daily in thine own court constantly attend to (the administration of) justice among the poor." 67. When the verbs ^jU»j\^ " to intend or wish," ^JuJ|y " to be able," ^J^u^b and ^JUj^Ui " to be proper &r fit," are fol- lowed by an infinitive, the final ^— of the infinitive is rejected ; as, Cjij Ji\^ " I will go," or " I intend to go" ; d^iy J|y " I can write." The verbs (JUj^b and ^Jwi^y are generally used imper- sonally, in the third person singular of the aorist or present; as, ^J ^^ ^Jl*J\y is also used impersonally; as, ^^ ^^i " One may do." We have reason to believe, from observing the usage of the best writers of the language, that when the infinitive precedes the above verbs, the y^ final ^:1. is not rejected; as, o\jjul»3 lo^^ (iH*3 "^ cannot do this deed"; so, jbU^^ ^^ls*i»J i^VV^ " ^ ^^ ^^* intend to send you anywhere." 68. The infinitive, in Persian, is to be considered merely as a verbal noun, and construed like any cither substantive. It CONJUNCTIONS. 89 corresponds more with the verhal noun of the Latin, formed from the supine hy changing the um into io or us, than it does with the infinitive, gerund, or supine of that language; as, in this sentence, :>/ CjJJj\ {JJ^'^ {2^^»i (J^^^V "-^ certain king made the signal for the killing of a captive"; which, by Gentius, is rendered into Latin, Captivum interfkere signum dederai; but the literal rendering is. Ad captivi inteTfectionem^ or De captivi interfectione ; hence the infinitive of an active verb, in Persian, governs a genitive, and not an accusative, as in most European tongues. 69. Conjunctions, in Persian, are applied as in English or Latin ; that is, when any thing contingent, doubtful, &c. is denoted, the conjunction is usually followed by the subjunctive mood (aorist and past potential) ; as, \3j3 CI^v>»- »? Ll»-t> j5o\3 jL-^ ^ sJ " Be satisfied with a loaf (of bread), that you may not bend your back in servitude"; so, t?^^j^jj<^^ ij'^^ ^'^dj^y' uJ^^v>? tg;jj>^ ^^ If the augmentation of wealth depended upon knowledge, none would be so distressed as the ignorant." 70. When a person has occasion to relate what he has heard from another, the usage of the Persian, like that of most oriental languages, requires that it should be done in the dramatic style. This will be easily understood from the following examples: " Zaid tells me that he will not come," j^\ ^\^ a/' Ju>^^ Lo Joj ; literally, " Zaid says to me that * I will not come.' " From the employing of the dramatic, instead of the narrative style, it will often happto that the Persian will differ widely from the English in the use of the persons and tenses of the verb, which may be seen from the few following examples ; viz. ^^ Zaid said that his brother was not in the'touse," Q^^^ ftil^-.^ c/*J^^ ^ C*-fl..S wMJ ; literally, " Zaid said, * My brother is not in the house/ " So, N 90 CONCLUSION. ^^ A poet committed a crime (on which account) the king ordered the executioner to put him to death in his (the king^s) presence," lA^ ))3^ i:/' ^3j Jj «f ^^^ y^ ^^"h ^/^Jf^ ^^ 5 i, €. '^ The king ordered the executioner thus, < Put him to death in my presence/ " It would he needless to add more examples of this kind : the learner has merely to recollect, as a general principle, that the person who relates a conversation that has occurred commonly gives the ipsa verba of the parties of whom he is speaking. P. S. When the Student has read this Work through, as directed in the last page of the Pre&ce, he will know enough of Persian to understand the numerous idioms and phrases, from that language, introduced into Hindiistani. Should he, however, he induced to persevere in his Persian studies, let him proceed to the Gidistan of Sa'di, and, after that, to the Anwari Suhaill of Husain Wa'iz. In poetry, perhaps the best book to begin with is the Bostan of Sa'di ; then the Iskandar-fidma of Nizami, or Firdausi's Shahnama ; to conclude with the Dlwan of Hafiz. I mention these, not mierely because they are standard works, but, being in print, they are more likely to be met with tnan manuscripts.. D. R v-i.Kl sZ>\j\^s^ * ^y*» y *«jV" j^.5 0-»*^, 1;4» J !«?■ J »>^W ylj?- j^ ^J^s t,^ - " * I, Jl ''■ '' ^ • \ ^ ' _^ y... -' '' 't-' ^^j^y iiaJ jj;Jl1* y^j^ J\jjj^ C^j j> j^ ^*>HH-2» L^V (J^^ u^M JukJj^ «i (>b jSj^^j^Ju^^U- *^ (-H J (^jr cr?j^ Lr4^^ ^ cr-^ j^ jW.> ji>l3\ i>^.L«»^J ;,W^ :ty^ o4*j J^ »^ «^ > ir^^ gHaj^ ..9»^, ->^ *^ ^ j^ o^Vj-i tf^ c*i-j» cl<»»^i ^3 :1 U (juiJ L^«i>si "■ . ,* . ' ^\^ C*flf >5,j^ yUj J ^ ^3 »-*i-»y j)>»»W Vj*>«^ ? ti^ wly *?■ ]; jj wi^ *^ vi*-j*u,i c*4?* u-*5? ,25rU f^^ ^J^ Oi^j V-^ji, *»>H '^^^ C^ VW Vj>>»5^ • V> vJ>.M ol>\£a». TA / • ^ (JL*^ Mb ioUjlJ , ^>iji- JJ^J >WiLS Jj** J^ y«J» C*iib iji-U 3 ]^ y^jj ci-*i.w>*-» ^ jiw ij-r jj;>j «$- oi^ J o:.b t^ ' >' eC» ^ , . ..*>»~' in - y\,>Jj ^^ li/jjJ yjAiai. tjjiAj jjjUjjy iLfia 0i\ iijj\ \^ - "t ■ . ' '-'■••■, ' ^ * ^^'^ ^j^jJ *^^Vj* J gfjt^j^ f^j* * ^ cjjjl^ ^b'^^-i/b ^U,^^y j^ j^ c*^], ^'G J ,>^j vk;^ sT* t' rv uiJs) w:^l\^a». * vlA*dj< {J^^J^J^ »^ (in);^ *^ ^W J^V *^V. '^j'^ «^^ * <^^ 'iU «& :>^ »^^ J^\3 ^S>\ ^\iaU * ^;fi» (,^>&;P ^j>' J\j^\ J . ""^ 1 *^ ^ ^ ],ji-o b <::*«»< jjuiii 5j^ y;>\ <^s sT" jdu»;j * c*i/ J* V- y m ^y^fi» ^ i/ 5yy »l5»5b » Sj-p JfclfS ^\;» ? ^j»; «> ji— • f^ re ^_J V*^ c^lil^s^ *^^^^^ ^^y/ f^ 3;* ^2,W »3 ^lli Jib IJV>?^ ^^y ); ^i^J^ Ji< j(fe> CA-ib j\ * C;u,>\ vj5^ C^j A Cj£ C^^ »^/ J »\, «J^ 4 J»>v>4^ ^\s 5ji (joAf* «-» jfc jj;i\ %%^ * iy »=», >>■ jv*i **>^ r J>y» ^J0^ * jjib j>\^ jij^ y\ »-aa< « J-()> ^j\J ijjJi ^e ^ wly?- e»5r * '^ *^ * J-^V 'v**^ *^* ^ w^!- u^ »*• »5'|,juL.»;jyj\ «fis (::*;y\ yfisuJ j^\ «S j3j4» <^^*-»)) *^ c^'* ]yj J* 3^ ^\^ wVr ji^ ^^i*^ ^^/V * "^ f^lj^ »!j*?j^i»^j^ ^y- ^ ^3ji V^J^ wjr iy^ W*V ^ (.tjU yljr jl^b * jjib »^/ j!yy Jjli ^ jb ^^ ^U ^ ^p OM^ j^< 3b y '^U Jy ^ iju-j]; CUii jUaP * CUii jb ^y>\ »^ C^ t^\i i\J ,_^-fe. iyj \J>\yr ^^ * « i^i*a^ ? >*-» S^jj ( * t i ^jVj ^4) J^ LV u^ w' > \,i, jjU- (_.*•'-« * jW i>iV 5jrj* y WJTJ •>4*^; J^ !»*>' uU^ ^^*^ j\ j^.> (.*^>-j*H >/ijj^ "*■ f^^^l) jW Jj^ V^ io^yj' '^- y Li (.^ J r'y ^ c^ L-^ yi*;! i^jj Wjys ^ ii^j Jj\ * c^ ^ ^_i^ otl^sto. r. * «/*/>^ V- «/!;? ^j^ *^ .s?*j^ *^J5 ],(i,^^j^^j :>/0J'\y- * 5/ j*)ji-jS\ fc* ^\jS ^J2\J Cj^\ jSjTj^ j\ c*iy» afiB ];i; c*», ^^i» trie o^Juoi^ J* *J. jVj^ "^J^ cTJ^ u^Jj* ryj^ vi*a^ J C*»; »l5.db, jS-o, ^^ ^ I jj^ \v>^ ^ti^ uy^^ C^pW '^^^^ y jr^ u*j ^^3i ^ »jjU-»b j^ J j-x^ (->1j^ w* «*» (»j^> «/^**^ ut5*^^ f'/a* «-j aV tt)- «/^**^ tt)y^^ ii^« jP*' ^^ c^\*^ w* J^ j^ «*" * i^jJj))^j^ J d^ V (i^fc*^ " ■ *» « » «/-e^t5*^ '^^ aTsb vW »^*^» * "^^ C-iB^ j^sb jij jj£ii< ^_^U cili ^^ 4,*-^ ^\^ JLLp- ^\ C*ft^ jV* * ^ JwxAlji- o^SJS osIj*>j ti^^S;; "^jIjjJ^ cl*-i5 5^ J*^ji5j )i J»^>k ^^ * C^< Jyui* ^\ O^UiO «uu5i\^;; Ca*^^ 0,)3j J\ «/ j3^ ^ t^.P rv y^\*\\^AA^^^ X X Jkib t^j\i, uJEiV (^^ O;-^ ^JOMji jjy^. v>ij^v>*- i/a^l>/ J, iji- >sa/>c«W j,jb »j5fi»V^ J/^«^^ Jij^J*- *lJjJ«? fcS'^U * 0-^ jV cur • ^>-? J ^4^ WV jW J^ t/«»^ ^'^ ^J*;* J ^ J*^* c^^ * ^^ ^> Jl^^ J ^ (>^ c/sl U^ - x* ^ -^ <^i.M oUl^s^ ri ijj\ i^O^Jj J-1 »Vii>\i yS-p, oaiP' tt)^> Jjj «^ jij^ v>* jj^J^ ^^b tl^jS j\ju^ ],jG< i^ y\laU afio v>y^ fijj\ Aft j»|j» >jo- *jS^ »\^j» cJi »l5»ib * C*-»^j^ «-. \j\ i>^^\fr ^ «^ ^/-jlii «iU.jfc\jj\ »U»5b c*-»^ »»j »i\>^lyr » Vi*ib ^U» Oc^ j^_ J^ y-i>» •» « jj^^ U\ L- «fe. 13 • ^LL-y ^j(j^ ^M^* »>V «/!;? V- (j?^ j^ (»v>i^ yjUi-y «^,.»y *^/ui>^ s£5jij »*^J^ «J^j* '^^ E <^\]^ «?J vXiU> o,\^ j^ t^ J> J wV •J'y wJ^ » j->^ ^ Jj** w'J^ »3LJ^ > OflS J »/j>j-» ^J< i;y 1^ «^ ^^jUSoj^ Alga Ju>3 l)(jj;^^ «^^ *^^ t/^*^ '^'' /*■*• B^ jW t/^S * 0^ v>JUPj <-^^ *^ C>^ J^^ j!? ^ J^ • C^\ js- ^^\JL^ »^^^>J J-^i^ C*-»), ^HjJ cM * Jyl. *«J^ ^^U J*. o-4> Ouft-»jS» di CiJJU >;j-i- dJ^ j> dfr^ ij«lft« j\ «j^ ^Ji^ «/^j^ 5?*^^ u* ^i^Jt^j tr^ J* \.JJ«- (V»J-»V »^>\i *•>/ lo^if^ U^ i^\ * 8JW ' <^i.M cA>\£st». rr y y * ui> «s'p^v*H ;^ pb <->>. *«»^b afjjy __ jjaUi j»U» ^ j»>^ ])(J^y o^ytj^ i*^ *^^^ * V *^^U (-r*i »^j^y»V » /:a,\ « "i^ ^\^ ^ j> yj-» c«-U ^^>- (^j*- uru*- jVj^ # - iP»> -yj^ ^ — CJb v:xjC5. .i&-. j3 ^^i\ ve jU-j »\i.>\i *jj^ j:$^ »^>^> i,j^ (^ t&*>* ^>A^ ^^- ti^?- * » jjii- _3 ij>]^ i/fji^ ijJ^ ^J^ «/^ tlii J JJ5» «-i^ »l5>iVjjJ u,i^:>^ CU^J^ "^;»4bj <^j^j ^>i> J a>Jw,jW »^5b » - •- .4' «^ X" cii ip V'O^ ij^jjj '^ ^* *^J pA^^y- *>^ (^^>- j^ jV^ wj-fri • 8 jj y JU "ilU _ >;* jy* i^>5» __ c*a^ J jJC «^bij5 J-\5 j^ ^>«> ^s * vi^\^ ^ui^ ^^}. J»^ \j^. W w * *^ LTii ^y- «^ v:^„^ i;)^jy*fH * ^ i/^JJ^ *fHjVi^ Sgrt^j^ ^ w » Jjuli* d-JU-» »«J\^ Vrp ^j)> J >,y^ _, C^ iy- ^aiW^^ X « 1 1 Ul.U) ylj\j\£aa. ♦ i^Jli^d^ji J,/y^ t^C^ iy-^* CJ^ ^^ ^ •>^ •• ^ •• - :i ^t UlM 0l».\^Sto* I A ^ 3L 9 ^ .9 ^ ^ O > GO ^ ^ • •• X ^ ^ »»j>> «j0 ^j)ji Jj^ «u- ^^)^^^\JJ^^ ^\ j1 jT bj _ Jj>^ ^ i\jt y ,ja»- Jj». iVna^^WMi ^ ^U ij> QUJj __ i/l» U^J, .^Jj^jJJ • yy^ \j-^ J " . . - 0^ o ^ o^^c^ c i c c c ,>jki4i ,^j^^ ^y>lj *yi. CO M J-i^A y^jy Jlyj^ • V^ Lri^ J C*», jyyersj J^ * ^ D <^ijM Cj\i\^o» \ 1 C • 0G# Uy' f f »^ |,^Li^^^ ;:)^-S» j^^ ^ »fe joSto jbb jj-flb# j5 1»^ CC^CO W^^ GO c o OG^G G,G/ G C « GG G^ G^^ Gi G w ^f G ^ Jf ^jjj . eb. ^ e c « t<. ^^jiij3^ ^^ J — r^j^^ o^-^ '/l^ p^ *^ w^^ isSiV ;/^ «^ »^> VW a»j> * (£^ (j^jW (^^ »v*feii» idjr /c^A -' CO ^ OJ c / •• " /•,;-r^-/''* " c c G , G G ^^ * v>ii \jB^ \,^ j5 ^/^.»^\ *!*-. j^ JA\ji- ij*t yj^ J.U G G • G G G C C G^ G Ui.U\ obl^a* 11* ^ ^ GOO ^G ^ • i G GGV'Gifc G o G ^G G G G G so C P ^ G G :**^ CJ? ^G W GO G G G r*l5^ ^ ijjiJ. cJ^\ uJU3i cc4j^ — u^ r^ J* V«3% C ^ t G G GO ^^ >jM jb Jai» ♦ Ow»1 tta*> Jii» j5l« «J'cl*i»^JJ^ ujjSj|> ^_^S » ^Ut* >i?-*' G • >, G O G '#^<^- CO ^i ' _- 0-.1 jbu-? '>^ yJoS — OuHsi di3V eP — *^ J ^, O^^ CO*C C^ *^ GO Of Cx'^ ^^ O • Oi,jb >J^ tjJt^^V& ? J»d \;^ clfr (a; • vXi ^ij ^\ Jbi5 J J^» y ^f^^ — C*»>. Jj eF Ci) ^ G O C ^ C j^ G > A/'C '^ ^; tV' ■■■' G ],c5-^ - ^j w^-t^ Vj^ ^ (f' cu^^ ^jL ddi jj^j »u»>b «^ ^^ _ v>is «slsi j^js^^ 1 1 UiM oU^iSste- ^O C G 9 9 W^V J^ ■— «>V (jPy^ Otf * j4»i C*i\^ cl*ij-i c^*^ * J-». i<.i y* jo yi^ — ^i^Ji> JjJa^\ j:> y\ c>5>b j^^ :y (jJi^ jbu.> t/**^ ^ ' o C^-' o & « CL^^^j C ^ O ;^ W # JV cy^^j^ JU jj*. «&i JH^^ t^. ^0 CW^O o &# ,3/^,6:m> .Vju^ «\i:>b * JU %^ Cxft? ? Cj^\ *« C f f ^ C CM ^•ftj'^ t \ o ^ c* ^ c ^ o G 0/ CO O ^ o jjiji- jlju^ »V?»i\^ # 5/j^^ *jJ** J J^ J^^ *^*U (jtH ^^ *iN a ^i«y ou' ^ X <* ' ^ u f 9 ^ " o'c/c i (j^ij^ »l5.>b, • C^ J*V^ ^»*>^ >^^^» '^J^ J ^'^J^ o c C CO O #6^ f ^ f ^ f *>-^^^ Sf^^jp* u>il tC^ — C*fl5 J _ v*i], joj _ jA Jjlj^ nUi'iVi .r— oi£ j^ c:4?^ ^'i ^^];? ,jc^ » jooX C G,^^ G^'G ^ 9 C9 » C^\^ 1^' ^\i^^ -^Si vi^U t^V tttf?- * (J^l^ (;/• (^^ J^^ • ^K ^ S G C G / __ OaS ij^J-. ^S _ Ji:i, ^S u^, j>jfc » i;Sa* Jj^j\ f^ 9 ^ 9 f f c N c 0" ^ y " ^ ^ ^ ^ \ ' 0^ G^ G|^^ G G G G^ G G G G -^ G^> G G ^ I f ^ "^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^y .^-^ *" >» \ ^ ^ G ^ G/ G ^ G G^ f ^^ *-' G^ G 1^ 9 G> ;' G G / G C C G -JG • G GG.G^ O G G^ G c G G ^^ G G . / ^ ' G^ G ^ G^ G G GOG GO /G * ^jL-jb jyy^^^^ij^ «uycA«-ib jjjb^js*-^^ e)^^ »-^ «^ J \ •• ^ ^ ^ ^ G ^ C' C. - G ^ G * 5/ uJUo ^J^,.^Ji j^soju J — v>ii^ yif^ ^J>^ Jl^/ * O O^ w^ ^ G H» O C^ G ^ — jj5jj\ ^i^\ ^jyj\* ip iW'j s5j33 c^ si\j .^joi^ rv " S^-J^ ^ (^-^ **^^>* — "^^ "^^V^ W^-J^ * ^J^ s^^) J^ J G^ G/G^ G^G^-' «r Ow-j\ i:>ycj ^\jO J>' » dui*^ Jo- J^ uJ5ls>- ^.^ C^ 3;* ^^\ O/G ^ O^ O >0^ ^ ^O M O G G G G ^ G ^ ci^ cJ^\^st»- O G • CO -^ C^ O^y iSJ} ^j>^i j> ^ ^ o-»iji i];9.^\5 t_^j> ^tLoU ri / G G ^ G C G / G G^^ G y ^ G^ G G^ ^ / G -^ — G^^' G G^ C f y^ G ^ G G G/^G ^ Gi G ^ ^G ^ ^ O^ O G G ^ G G G ♦ j>i,b^jj-f y _ ^liS c^\jP ^^ tf\>S^ *b vW G -JG • G GG.G^ O G GG^G c GG^^G G / f ' t. f O x* G^GG G G G GO ^G * ^JL-Jb ^y^^^ ^J^ »S Cj^\^ S^\y^j^ {J^^J*^ »-^ «i^ J G ^ G C • G ^ G OoSjjA JJi^\ (Vjjj\* Sp iW'j SSj^ C*^ «j], ;_^aa!^ f~V • G^G G/G^ G^G^^ O/G ^ G^ G ^G^ / ><' y f\t IN «/ u o jj «&» 5^ ]^ iiU 8U;»5b » i^ ^4i^ s&^^ cgJjD ""^ G^ G^ G G ^ 9 G G ^ G» <;^ G ' G ^,U\ tob\^s)». €/» •'■'■ ^ c/ o o ^ f S > _ »V^ ^y^ ^ji j>\S cii • cjL^ yi^ * 'i;' o \ ^H-*-3 >li3b* j33\^ ^j^ir*-^ L^^^ji )j^y^ **^^ >^]}Jbli J >Vi>5b ^O G/ G/ ^ 9 P O/ /G ^G G G ^-' G / •• • • ^^ ^ ^ •« t/ji GG^G W /. G^ G ^ G ^ C^ G f fVk J^ \^ ^ *^];?;i ^}y-jCi ~ ^ ]jjijj U^Jy- 5>^ G/ ^ ^ ♦^ ^-^ 1^ ^r^v ^^^^^^ J);> J^j^ * ^^. ^' ^*^ c.^ ^^^ V G/ «* ^ .Ji C,^ * J" C G G o^/ ^ G A 9 9 9 ** ^9 ^ ^ tf « 0^ « Vj^' *^^ **^ ^b ^ s£;4^j* J^^-«-> f ^ C G 7 . G/ ^ ' *^ G/ / x-G/G/O ^ O / G ^ / ^J * j*^\^ «^ y j^ cu>^> yj^^j^ ^./-^ *^ *^^ «^1^> * J^V 1-^ Gi-^ 9 O^f O G G ^ ' 99 9 9 ^9 ^ G C G O ^ ^ G G Gx-X- C C G O ^ Gx-^- Alt*-' • 4 A /^-i'^ '/ c \OJ,\jo- — cJs^ eS'jJi ],^^ »^J^ ^ iL^ j^] _ j*)j ^\ oil yjLi^^ * jb »\j:j j^ (i)^AJ5 j^ > jjSO-^ ,^y J5 j^^ Oi? • J/i^ 0-»i i^y ];5' Oi? • Ji c i.9 , 9 ^ / . ^^ii^j^}^f^. <,?VV «^— v>A-iH i:>y»^^J^ L^***^ ' ♦ c* ^ C CO tS^ «_>< OflS » t^^> u^\«r «^ Vj* j^ • «^^;^ V J*** J • (.Ju^ 0.3U »jU6« bj5 J^ t^^ iy ^^ ^ X ^ ,♦ x" ^ •• -^ *^ o / c ^ o ' .« •-• (i)j-9- «^ j5-W^ *«i*^ y ^^ *>- j*^ V — *«^»vi 1* w^y, i>lii J^j J* V ^ — r^ i:;^ l;^' ^ ?y*rV «^ 3y lib J\ CJJ . ? O4W tyiU j» B i VOCABULARY. PERSIAN AND ENGLISH N.B. — In order that the Student may not waste time in useless search, he must be careful to reduce each word to its simple form» by stripping it of such prefixes and additions as it may happen to have, before he looks for it in the Vocabulary. The prefixes are, lat, i, used as a preposition before a noun, and, in verbs, pre- fixed, as i or ^, to the Future, and, redundantly, to the Preterite. 2dly, i or jJ, and *« or -J^, prefixed to verbs to denote negation (Gram. p. 48. No. 40). 3dly, jJ« or jj^ prefixed to verbs, to denote the Present and Imperfect Tenses. The ordinary affixes are, 1st, the ^-, denoting unity, &c. (Gram. p. 30. No 29.) ; as, fc'^^^ " a certain person*' (in the Vocabulary, look for ^jos^)* 2dly, The plural terminations, J\, ^^\S, ^U, and U (Gram. p. 25. No. 25.), together with the termination )j/ 3dly, The terminations added to form the various persons of the verb; and, lastly, pronominal affixes, >♦ — , lU — , ^ — -. Vide Grammar, p. 33. No. 32, and more fully in the Syntax. By attending to these few hi^is the learner will be spared some trouble, and the Vocabulary will incur less censure on the score of deficiency. « c—^l 56, water, splendour. Jtfc)l A^l;>^ IbraMm Adham^ name of a pious sovereign of Balkh. jj^l abru^ honour, reputation. ^1 ahlah, foolish, s. a fool. \j»*^\ aHshy or dtash^ fire; anger. liliJl ittifakan^ accidentally, by chance. jUl asar^ traces; a pound weight d^Ujll isbati confirmation, proof. ^ asaVy mark, sign, vestige, efiect. Ubl asna^ middle; dar eisna^e an, or dar m asna; in the mean while. j\P^ ihHfaZ^ taking care of one's self. yj^^>s^ ahmaky foolish, a fooL Jl^l ahwaly circumstances, afiairs, condition. J^i ahwaly a squinting person, one that sees double. j\^^ ikhtiyar^ choice, power. j&- 1 akhir^ the end, at last ; akhir ul amr, in short, finally. )fc)l ada^ pa3nnent, fulfilment ; cu/a kar-- dan or aakhtan, to pay, fiilfiL c^4>) cuiab^ politeness, courtesy. ^\ ( aJI Adafiu the first man ; hence i^^^l a man, one of the human race. CLJi)!^^ iradatf or }iS\J\ irada^ will, in- clination, intention. ^jj\ arzan, cheap, worthy. ^jj\ arzu, desire; arzu-mafkl^ desiTGa&, longing for. ^o;l arkan, pillars; arkan-i datdat, pillars of state, nobles, courtiers. i^T arij yea, yes, yea verily. j,\ az, from, by, with, than. i^lj I azad, firee, emancipated ; a hermit j)J I azar^ affliction, vexation. • ^^1^1 azan, thence, therefore. ^fc>^l azmudan, to try, test. ^^UmI asatm^ names, or a list of names. yjjju**] asayish^ ease, indulgence. u^Uuw) Qshaht means ; goods and chattels. ^.^^^1 asp, a horse; also (.«^^mi). fc)ll>Ml ftstdd, master, preceptor. ^jUamI istadauj to stand, persist ^l^sduM) ustukhafiy a bone. cUjLw) i8tima\ hearing. jJoCmI Iskandar, Alexander the Great j\iMt\ asfarj travels : plur. of ^Aam. ^\ ism, a name, noun in Grammar. «Uum) asmar, stories, conversations. ^UjmI asman, the sky, the heavens. ^JmmI asUdan, to repose, be at ease. ^ - Vwl astb, trouble, annoyance. .Afcwl astfj a prisoner, captive. Jjds.^1 istabaly a stable. m) aslan, at all, in the least qB^I itla, information, notice ; Httila^ investigating. j[^\ izhdr, manifestation, pointing out 2 ) j*\ JUJcI i'iim^, confidence, reliance. c^jjcl ^rah, an Arab of the desert, or an uncivilized wandering Arab. jUI aghdz, a beginning. ^Ijuil ttfiadan, to fall, to happen. \Jii\ tftira, calumny, slander. ^jJj^l dfridanj to create (root jo*;*')- ^ J I q/riin, creating ; applause ; bravo ! ^iVaGI afgandan, to cast, throw. tJlS^ iflds, poverty, destitution. ^ AkSlil Afldtuny Plato, the Grecian sage. L-.^llf I akdribf relatives, relations. t)J\ ikrdr, confirmation, confession. yi\ aksafy most, firequently. ^ J^ aknun, now, at present. so) dgdh, aware of, informed. jS\ agar, if; ^^»^^ agarcM, though. Jl a/, the Arabic article " the,'* prefixed to Arabic nouns. (Gr. p. 18.) JCo!) alhatta, in truth, assuredly. CUlaJSI Utifat, notice, attention. fc)W' ilhad, idolatry, infidelity. JW' al-hal, at present, now. Ji^lac)' al'hdsiU in shorty finally. JJI Uzdm, conviction. iuS^\ al'kissa, in short, finaUy. aUI ^//a^, God. ^\ Hahi, Divine. The Deity. Ut ammo, but, nevertheless. ^Ut atndn, protection, safety. Ci^UI amdnat, a deposit, a thing en- trusted, or consigned to one. ^IfSX^^ imtihdn, trial, examination. ^J^^\ dmadan, to come, to be (r. u^D. j^ amr, matter, af&ir, subject jyj^ imroz, to-day (for tn-roz, this day). J^ \ ( \^^j^ ' amokhtan^ to learn, to teach. iXA^I ummed, hope, expectation. jl^4\x«» ummedwar, hopeful, yA^i amir, a commander ; a grandee, ^i an, that, it^ he, she. * jUil ambar, a store, quantity. ^Uil amban^ a leathern bag. lac I anja^ there, in that place. ^u:s? I anchunafiy su^h as that, so. ^taC I ancAt, that which, whatsoever. ^^IjjI anddkhtan to throw. AiJji andam^ body, person. J Jo I andaTj within, inside. ^•^i)Jl andarun^ within. VilJJjl andak, a little, a few. ^jJ] andakz^ a small portion. ^IjMi)) insafty man, the human race. UijLa}) insafy justice, one's right. fM in am, a gpratuity or present j(^l ifikary denial, refusal. vj:,^m(il angushty the finger. t ^ lAijI angushUtrtj a ring. ^^1 angurf a grape, raisin, etyl all?^'a^ various sorts or kinds. A>l ana, a nominal coin, the sixteenth part of a rupee. ji o, 3d pers. pron. he, she, or it. J 1^1 atvaZf sound, noise» voice. ^j^\ awardan, to bring (r.^l orj^l). J^I awmaU the first ; at first Sii^ aulddy family^ oppring. ^^^kfl^.^ I dwekhtanyto cling to» lay hold of. (Jjbl ahlt people, men. {^Jm\ dhangy design, intention. ^^JJ^\ dhan-gar, a worker in iron, a blacksmith, an armourer. 3 ) ^ 4^1 at, interject O ! ul dydy sign of interrogation. Jul AiydZy a man's name. ^LijI eshdfiy plur. of ^1, they. UjI tfd payment, fulfilment ^UjI Imdny faith, conscience. ^\ m, pron. he, she, it, or this. I:f\jf3 mjdy here, in this place. ^^^;AA:s:\j) inchuniny such as this, thus. jiVftJbl inkadar, to this extent, so much. J(Cx>l mki, he who, that which. iuj I d-ma, a mirror ; times ; A(ir-a-«rta, always, at all events. 7^ ba (in Arabic, 60, a preposition, by, with, in, to ; W, verbal prefix. b bdj in company with, possessed of j!i 6ae^ the wind ; bar bad dddan^ to g^ve to the wind, to cast away. sltfc>U bddshdhf a king. j\j bdr^ a burden ; time, as in the phiase yak-bdr^ once ; du-bar, twice. sjj bdrUi behalf ; dar bar a e kase, in behalf of any one. Ju bdz, a hawk : as an adverb, this word signifies iteration or repetition ; as, bdz raf tarty to go back ; bdz kardariy to put back, or open Ca door« &c.); bdz namudafiy to de- clare, shew forth. J)j\j bdzuVy a market-place, market j^b bdzty a game, play ; bdzl ydjtany to win the game. ^Jo :U bdzzdaut to play, gamble. L^^%.&1> bd'is, cause, reason, motive. t^ ( 4 ) 0^ cb bagh^ a garden^ an orchard. ^UcU bagMan^ a gardener. ' ^U 6a A^, remaindery remaining. CJ\i baky {ear, hesitation. SO bald, above, on the top. JflU W/*tift entirely, " in toto." A) bdm^ roof of a boose, (>ltX«b bamddd^ in the morning. ,ZXi^ bdngy a voice, sound, cry ; bang zadan, to call out jffi) bdwar^ true, creditable ; bdwar kar- dan or daskian, to believe. dii[e^^j^[) bdwarchi'khdna^ (literally) cook-house ; a kitchen. >2bl> bdhanij together, united. ^^^LmjU bdyistan^ to be proper^ neces- sary : generally used impersonally ; as, Jjb odyadf it is necessary, &c. i:^^ bachcha, the young of any animal. ^^S jJLsC . bakhsJadan^ to bestow, for- give, spare. (Jj^. bakhtl^ a miser; stingy. iXj 6ae;?, evil, bad : much used in com- position ; as, i^^^, bad-khuey of ill-temper; ^^«j Jj bud-rue, ill fa- voured. ^UiVi badndniy a bad name, reproach. 4>lf)t>o badnihd,d, depraved, perfidious. WtiVi baddnjd, (WlJ^) in that place. .»3j ba-dar, out, to the door. _J[ Jb^ badin^ for ^t Jb, in this ; hereby. j) bar, on or upon, for, at jj^j> bardbar, literally, breast to breast ; equal. jSij) barddar and birddar, brother. ^l^J^ birddarunrf^ worthy of a brother. ^g/y^\ji bar-amadan, to come up, come to pass. cT^^l/ bar-awardanj to bring np, prolong. i^iji barde, for the sake of; barde kkuddj for God's sake. ^jXm»1»^ bar-khoMtany to rise up, to depart. jIj^ bar-ddr kaslddan or kardan, to hang, to crucify. ^«^lj^ bar-ddshtan, to hold up, to carry off ^ji burdan (root, 6ar), to bear, carry away, bring. ^i3Jb^ bar kandan, to pluck out, to eradicate. dSj} birka, a pond, pooL ^J^ji bar-gashtan, to return. ^JjJiXASji bar-gumdshtan, to send forth. Jj} biranjy rice. ^jt bar-o, on him, her, &c.; biraw, imperative oiraftan, go thou. fitij^ barJiam, confused, offended, enraged. JUJbji barahna, uaked, bare. ^j> birydn or burydn, baked, fried. ji^^jji Buzurfmihr, a man^s name. ^jj> buzurgt great: applied to age, it means, old, reverential. ^jmJ bas, enough ; bas kardan, to have done. LUmj bisdt, a bed, carpet, covering. Jxmi bistar^B. bed, couch. ^jAmiJ bastan (band) to bind. jUjuuj bisydr, much,^^any, very. djo bad, at the end, after : generally applied to time. 1 w ( 5 Jl5j bakkal^ an oil-merchant, a grocer. li baldf evily misfortune, calamity. Jj Balkh, name of a city. ^^liMj bulddny cities, regions, ^i^ bcda\ swallowing, devouring. dh bcUkiy but, rather, on the contrary. JoL bulandy tall, high, great Jj 6a/a, yea, verily, indeed. ijiji^. hina-bar-m^ on this account t3Jb 6an£^, fetter, desire. ^JsJu bandagz, servitude, submissioir. ^jJo banda, a slave, servant. 4^^ bu or 65e, fragrance, smell. ^t>y buddUy to be, exist (r. ^ or ^l^). ^ 6a, by, with, in. ^ dih, good, better. ^l4> bahana, pretence or pretext Jx^ bihtaTy better ; bihtann^ best 8^ bahra, a share, portion ; utility^ ^ be, without, deprived of. jixf biydr, imper. of arvardafit to bring. ^Uj bayan^ explanation, narration. i<^L5^ 6262, a lady, mistress. &>\jiXfha%an(L, earnest-money. Ir^U 66/0, out of place, improper. jclJscsjj be-jigari, timidity, cowardice. ^U^.j be-chara^ helpless, forlorn. fCjj^s^^ be-chzztj destitution. Ia£S\j 6^.&aya, shameless, impudent. f^ behh, root of a tree. i^j^f^ be-kharjij non-expenditure, economy, jli^oj be-dar^ watchful, awake. ^4)^jii berun^ out^ outside. v^^»»M bist^ twenty. aJUju bat ana, earnest-nloney. Jji£ S^ ^'^Mt insane, stupid. iLa^jo bfL'tfak'bdry all at once. ^LGj begdna^ a stranger. jUJj dJmar, sick, unhealthy. (^Ujj 629nan, sickness. ^^ &«», see thou (r. of ^J^yiS), (Juo 6m2, the nose. U4JJ be-tvafd, faithless, Mse. Sfc)^ behuday foolish, vain. U pa, the foot lA^'v P^P^^9 foot-covering, slipper. sImiJU pddshdh, a king. teyU pdrcha^ a garment ^M^\j Pdrsi or Para**, Persian. ^b />ara» a bit, fragment ; pdra kar- dan, to break to pieces. ^j*.U jpa«, a watch of the day or night; pdS'bdn^ a sentinel ; pas ddsAtany to keep watch.^ (JUmiL) pasbanty keeping watch. cJU pdk, clean; pdk kardan, to wipe. iijj^\j pdk»zJu pinddshtany to consider, imagine, believe. c:^>AM^ post, skin, hide. ^(X^M^ pos/udan, to put on (a garment), to cover, conceal ; poshamdan, to cause to be clothed, coveredt &c. tCh^.piyada, a pedestrian, a pawn (at chess). iJOj paida, manifest, bom, created. kU ptr, old, aged, an old man^ an elder. ^Lu piirahan, a garment. ^^Sfc>^ pesh, before, in front AxytJo peshma, former, past. JCmL^ pesha^ a trade, avocation, or pro- fession. CJjJ pat A:, a runner or courier. Jjc» pi/, an elephant ; also Jji /i/. U /a, that, so that, until. w^U /aM^ subjected, subdued. j\s»Jj tdjdaty crown-holder, a king. J^ tar, dark ; also tank, AibjlJ taziyanay a scourge, whip ; ^bii- yana zadoHj to flog. ^Jii^ tdf tan, to turn, twist, revolve, shine. (J^lS /a-ai»;7efiA meditation,CQnsideration. ^MjjJ tabassum, a smile. CL>;l£^ tijarat, traffic, merchandise. (Jj^l^ tajdhtdi pretending ignorance. taja^sus, search, inquiry. tq^mz, leave, permission. ^jAm*^* tahsm, praise, commendation. tahayyuft astonishment takhty a throne. ^ tukhfit, g^n, seed-stone. jiit^ tadtnr, arrangement, contrivance. ^SjJit\^ tarasJudanyXo cut ofl^ cut away. iidS taraddud, perplexity, dismay. ^iUSliM^ tarsdmdan, to terrify : causal of tarsidan, from the root iars, fear. ^43JkMy tarsitkin, to be afiraid. 1^ tursh,^ sad, stem, morose. wJ ^arA;, abandonment, forsaking. viJ/ TwrJfe, a Turk or Turkoman. CL ^w.1 /t<«/', for tu-astj (it) is of thee or thine. s u.A^Jl> tashrlf, ennobling; tashrlf burdan, to honour an inferior with a visit ; to condeao^ad. i^ylJ tashmshy disturbance, trouble. (J^t^^ tasdiky verifying, confirmation. iiyfi> tasmVy a picture. Cj^UJ ta^dkuby pursuit \jo ( 7 ) '^ jJIjo ta'ala, He is exalted; God. C«-^>jU /rt'6, labour, fatigue. j>^ ta*btrj interpretation, explanation. i.Z>^sj^ ta'ziyaty condolence. ^»jJa«j> ta'xtm^ magnifying, revering. CU^^IaJ tafawut^ distance, difference (in m Space). — ;AJf tafarruj^ enjoying or viewing (of scenery, &c.) ^^so tafalckur, thought, contemplation. UoIaJ takaza, dunning, demanding. (w^yll taknbj proximity, presence. JLflftJ takstr, delinquency, crime. C^jiXG takzzby accusation of falsehood. i^JS tag, bottom, depth ; dar tag^ un- derneath, subjected to. (^SJ taloshy search, investigation. ImUJ tamashay a spectacle, show. AaS tamam, all, entire, the whole. iKjuuJ tambthy admonition, reproof. lf)b tanha, alone. ^jAMoly tawanistany to be able. jJ ^i/,. thou. 23jy taubtkhy blaming, chiding. ^ J tuliit name of a certain weight. u^y tafvakkufy delay, putting off. JoJ tawangdr, powerful, rich. y^:^^^A^ tuhmat, accusation, calumny. Ci^vJU^ tahniyaty congratulation. ^-^ /a^, or tiMi empty ; taM-dast^ empty-handed, destitute. jUS taiydr, readv prepared. jJ fFr, an arrow. j'jJl^ ttr-andaZy an archer; tSr-an- dazi, archery. jaJ teZy sharp, swifl, violent. j^->iulJ Ttmur and Taimury the far- famed conqueror, commonly called' Tamerlane; properly Taimur-langy i.e* Taimur the Lame. iJL^ sabeUy proof, confirmation, w.-'iy sawaby reward, retribution (in a future state). L>' ja, place ; ja-kardan, to occupy a place, to settle. ^ji^yJ^ jasuSy a scout . jamUy a garment. ^jl>* yaw, soul, life. ' judOy separate, apart. - jaUady an executioner. Sjj>- jaldy quick, swift c:^^Ub>> Ja^Tta^a/*, a number, crowd. •^ ya»»\ an assembly ; jarn shudaUy to assemble. *^a:^ jafm\ all, the whole. ^Sxxi^ jufnJndany to shake, move (in- transitively) ; hence, jumbamdafiy to shake, move (actively). ViLAa^- ^ait^, war, battle. (Jjuv:>- jangaly a forest of thickets. ^JXx>. jangU, wild, untamed. \ ( 8 ) & i^t^ jawahj an answer. \]y^ jawan, a young man^ juvenis* jlb]^jawahiry}ewe]s; jawaMr-khana, the jewel-house, treasury. i:f^y^ Jai««^an, a cuirass, coat of mail. c^ ju\ hunger, appetite. jl^^ jahaz, a ship, boat ^^^jahan, the world, an age. i^^xyjaib or jeb J a pocket, purse; also, a mantle. ,4>U- chddar or chddir, a mantle, sheet. tj^ charat resource, remedy. oJ^l>> chashL the mid-day meal. xU- cAgA, a pit, well. I ->• chirdi why ? wherefore ? chtra-kiy because, since. cly^ chiraghj a lanthom, lamp, tt^^^ cAariirfaw, to graze, feed. >As^ chashm, the eye ; hope. • j^Sjj- chi'kadar^ to what extent ? how much? ^fcJo^ chaktdan, to drop, to fall by drops. iij!j>- chigunttt what sort? how? why? ^U^ cAtinan, like that, such as that jJt^- chand, some, several. il>jJl»- ckand-bdr, several times, often. J (XJb^ chandm. so much, as much as this. (Jjjl»» changulf a hook, a claw. ^jUL>- cAt«mn, such as this, so much. ^^ chun, like, when ? how ? why ? («^«»-cAo6orcM&, a stick, piece of wood. <)c^ cAe, that, that which, what ? for. X^ chahdr^ four ; cAaAarum, fourth. ^joi»- chtdan (root ^^)» to gather, collect. cA«;r, a thing, an afl&ir. cAe^/, What is it ? for cAl and cut or Aos/. Jft>U. hazik, skilful, expert Jwi0l»- Ao^, result ; hdsU fcardan, to acquire ; hasii shudany to be ac* quired. j0c\^ haztr, present, in attendance ; A5- zirdn^ those attending. Jl»- /to/, condidon; dar halj imme- diately. Sl^ halan, now, presently. c:^l»- hdiat, condition, state. J^U- hdmilt bearer, carrier. ^-«ijksw habsh^^ an Abyssinian or Negro. ^U>- tidtha^ a particle, a grain. ^J>h aK^ hardm-zaddy unlawfid-bom, a reprobate. ^U^ hirmdHy disappointment hartft a rival, companion. hasady envy, malice. hashmati pomp, retinue. hissa, a share, portion. d^^^ hazrat, presence. Tour Majesty, Highness, &c. j^^^ huzur, presence, the royal pre- sence, the King's Court ^l»- kakky truth, right ; hakk tddla^ God Almighty. Sa>a>^ hahtka or haktkat, truth, cir- cumstance. d^l^ hikdydty stories, tales : plur. of c:^!^ hikdyaty a story, narrative. ^»^ hukm^ order, sentence (of a Judge). & ( 9 ) U^^ hukama^ sages (plur. of haldm), hukama-iU- cisr^ the wise men of the age. ^^^ C" »- hikmat^ sagacity, contrivance. |iJj>^> hakim^ a sage» a doctor. himakatf folly, stupidity. humk, folly. LMk>- Aam/, a burden ; haml kardan, to impose a burden, to assail. 1^ HawQi Eve, the first woman. ^f^^ ^\^ hatvala kardan^ to give in charge^ to consign. {jo^ hawZy a pond, tank for bathing. U». Aojfa, shame, modesty. ci^U». Aoya/, life, lifetime. iJlti^ ^^^o^Uf astonished, bewildered. Cl^^A>. hairat^ astonishment. ^uU». Mla^ trick, stratagem. aJI:>- khadiniy an attendant, a slave. ^^^U- khastan (r. Me;:;), to stand up. Jo\^ kkdtir^ the heart, soul ; khdtir jam' dasJUan^ to be of good cheer ; khdtir nigah ddahtan, to cherish, to win or possess the heart K^i^ khdk, the earth, dust Jl^ khcdt, bare, empty. ^yj^ khdmoshy silent ^Mv«l»- kkdmosMf silence. ^(»- k/idfiy an inn; also a Tartar title, lord, ruler; vulgarly, Cham. ^l»- khdna^ a house, mansion. ^1^ ^U- khdna-khardln, ruin of one's house, destruction. ^J\>- khd'in, a deceiver, treacherous. A»- khabar or khabr, news, information. ^lOjjki- khabar-ddr, attentive* aware. C>s^ khajalj ashamed, abashed. Cl^Jbs^ khajlaty shame» bashfiilness. \s^ khtuldj God, a master. jJ^)iX». khuddwandf a lord, master; khtidawand-4-ganj^ the Lord of the treasure, the Most High. c:^^^J^ khidmat, service, presence. >- khar^ an ass ; khar-gosh^ a hare. --^I^ khardb, destruction, evil, bad. ^iL#L>- ^At«ra«ani, a native of Kho- rasan, a Bactrian. ^^iSJl^ khurdndafij to cause to eat; to give food, to treat dj^'khurdf Bmall, little; Mero^, wisclom; khiradmand, wise, sensible. \^j^ khurmd, the fruit of the date-tree. ^^j^^^ khurosj, a cock. ^Jj^ kharidan, to buy, purchase, ^dsi^ kharitaj a purse. ^]^ khizdnaf a treasury. d.^LM»- khasdrat, loss, damage. ^JjUgM»- khuspidan, to sleep. Jijl/i 1/**^ Khusru or Khusrau Parmz^ a celebrated king of Persia. ^»A». khishm or khashm^ anger, indig- nation. dyXJ^ff*- khusknud^ also JyLt^, con- tent, joyful, pleased. >- kha^ty a goat >- khattj a letter, an epbtle. l]o>> A;Aa^a, an error, failure, missing. ^..^wOa>- khadb, a preacher. ^]1>- khalds^ liberation, freedom. i2l»- khUqf, the contrary, opposite. & ( 10 ) i\i khil'at^ a dress of honoar. C:^^L>- khalrvat, privacy, retirement ^iX;^^ khalidaUj to pierce into the flesh (as a thom)^ to prick. ^J^^ khuftan, to sleep(r.L— /«**^ ArAiifp). i^Ji^ khunsa^ a hermaphrodite. HdJ^ khandOj smile, laughter. ^Jj4>Jl»- khandtdan^ to smile, laugh. y»- or (^•d- khu or A;Ai^e, temper, dis- position. u^[p- A:Aa6, sleep, dream. (V. Gr. p.lC. a.) ^iXaj!^ khabUdan^ to sleep. ^U^ khaja, a master, merchant »I%^ JrAar, devouring ; used in com- position ; as, bisyar-khary a glutton. ^jAm»Ij»- khasian, to wish, will, desire. ^iXil^ khandan^ to read, to call. jftL>. khahar^ a sister. ^■J>j'^ ArA56, good, beautiful. -^*i- kkubSj goodness, beauty, virtue. i3«»- khudy self, a friend. •»>- A:AMr> food. Jjift»- khurd, small, little. ^jji^ khttrdan, to eat> to swallow. 1^^ khushy pleasant, good; khush dmadan^ to be agreeable, to be welcome. t^j^ khtishty joy, pleasure. ^\Sm*^ khushddman, a mother-in- law, a wife's mother. Jy^^ khushnudy pleased, satisfied. ^J>- khush a, a bunch of grapes. ^jiji^ khesh, self (Vid. Gr. p. 12. 6.) c:^Lj^ khiydnaty treachery, dishonesty. c:^ jji3- khairiyat, welfare, safety. ^^tib dddan, to give, pay (r. St) rfiA). yd duTy the gallows, a gibbet : in com- position it means possession. i£^^jit^ ddrogha, the head man of an office. ^jl^lj ddshtan, to possess, hold, have. ^j^iJ ddmany skirt of a garment l3)j £^na, wise, prudent ^jLuJtj ddnistan, to know, to think. JJUJlilj danUhmandy wise, learned. ^Ij e/ana, a grain, seed. I*jlfc> dd-im, always, perpetual. jj^d dukhtary a daughter, a damsel. JS-t) dakhly entrance. ^4> (/ar, a door ; prepos. in, into, at ; ba-dar^ out, to the door. j'jd dardZy long, distant ; also dirdz. ^4V«I^4> dar-dmadan, to enter. U^-'jlf^, e/ar-a«?eiA/a«, to contend, grapple with. ^^bjJ darbdn (also e/anmn), a door- keeper, a porter. c:^^>y J darakhty a tree, a stalk. djJ dardy pain (bodily or mental). ^iXUrf^^J dar-rasidany to arrive, enter. c:^%*o^4> durmty right, true. i*; J diraniy money, a small silver coin. ^^U j(> dar^mdndaUy to be destitute, to be "in a fix," to be weary. ^|i|^J darwdza^ a door, a gate. c.y J durogh, a lie, falsehood : durogh- gOy a liar. ^;<^fa> daruHj in, inside, within. jiJCJj»;fc> * darweshy poor, a religious mendicant ^ J dar^ham, together, contracted ; J (X>^ ( 11 ) ^^ rue dar-ham kasMdan, to be of- fended, to firown. u^t> darycLy the sea, a river. Cl^bjfc) daryafii discovery, compre- hension. ^^\j>^fc> dar-yaftan^ to discover, under- stand. &^^4> dartcha, a window. j^^4> dar-zn, in this. i3; J fi?<«;2:cf, a thief, a robber. (^Ji'J dtizdiy theft ; ba-duzdt raftan^ » to be stolen, to f^o by theft ^43j Jf J duzdtdan, to steal. c:^AAM(> fi^a^/, the hand. jUa*/4> dasiar, a turban. *3;^c:^s»wi> dast'burd, victory (in play, war, &c.) jyuM4> dastur, rule, custom. ^^^J dushman, an enemy. 4^.AMt) dushmanJj enmity, hostility. aU^J dtishndm, abuse. lct> du'a, prayer, supplication. 4^^ J or i^fa> dawa, a claim, request. Jbj dqftar, a volume, a book. »9i> fl?a/^, repelling, warding off. ^jiJ e/a/7», burying, hiding underground. Jfa> 6i?27» the heart, mind ; dU-tangy dis- tressed in heart ; dil-juh seeking the heart, kindness, courtesy. Jfli) dalki a dress worn by religious mendicants.^ jSj ^a/;z7, a bucket. At) e/am, a breath, a moment ; efi^m, the tail. L^St) dummal, also Joij dumbed, a tumour, a sore. JuJj dumbali stem, rear, behind. ^IjjJ danddn, a tooth. Uij dunydf the world, the present life- ^J ^t/y two. L J daiva, medicine, cure, y^ ^fa> du-pahr, the second watch, noon, midnight. jjj (/i/r» distance, far, remote. j^j^d dozakhf helL Ci^NMjJ c/o«^, a friend, companion. (.>Mj4> dfo^^e, friendship. (^^J 6i?oM the shoulder; last night ^uUuMjfa) doshma, of or during last night. ^l>jJ dukan, a shop» office. (kjrJjJ daulat, wealth, fortune. j^^d dufvum, the second, secondly. ^Joji> daimdan, to run. >jijj duyumi the same as duwum. ^4> (;?aA) ten : 6i?/A, a village : also, give, root of dadan, to give. ^^t^jylzbJ dihamdan, to cause to give. ^lA2tJ dikhan, a villager, a peasant t_5J fl?J, yesterday; yesternight lb J diyar, a country, kingdom, c:^^*) diyanat, probity ; diyanatdoTf honest jljjj diddr, a. sight, an interview. ^tiJ J 6i?2C?an, (root ^^ bin), to see, experience. Jj^J -dlroZy yesterday. ^■yAmj>4> di'Shabt yesternight jC^J digafi another, again. lUjifa) dindr^ name of a coin, a denarius. J\^J^ dtwdr, the wall of a house, &c. ^Uj diwdna or devdna, mad. t^Vi ( 12 ) ^j i&>]0 zcHka the palate, taste. ^^jjJ^l ^d xu'lkamain^ two-homed, an epithet applied by the Arabs to Alex- ander the Great \j rahatt tranquillity, enjoyment. j^j raz, a secret. t\j rastf straight, rights true. ^tXij^ randafh to drive away, send, dismiss. ^f^l; rawtf a narrator, historian. }s\j rah, road, path. ^j ruhm or ruhum, mercy, pity. ^^4^ rahman^ merciful, compassionate. ff^ rafmrh gracious, forgiving. 4^j rukh the cheek ; the castle at chess. rukhsat, dismissal, leave. ^\jj razzak^ The Bestower ; God. ^43aiLM^ rasamdan^ to send, convey. ^j rasan, a rope, string. ^tVJU; raaldan^ to arrive, reach. 6jJUj raahldy wise* upright \^j rizd, satisfaction, consent Cl^lfi; riayat^ observance ; ri'ayat kardan^ to observe, maintain, ij^^^oc; ra'tyat, subject, people. ^JjSj raftan (root ^j ra/w\ to go, move. Ji rafu^t repair, mending, iyi rafUgar^ a repairer, mender. ^j ranjj sorrow, vexation, pain. ^iVjsr^j ranjzdariy to ^eve^ vex. ^j ru or 4^j^ rue, the face ; rilic^rUy in presence, face to face. « ^yj rawafij going ; the soul, spirit i\j^j robahy a fox ; robah-baeha, a fox-cub. Hu ^P^* silver, a rupee. ^XJ ^piy^i & rupee, a silver coin, value about two shillings. jjj rozy a day, time in general. JzJV ^ozgar^lihiime^ the world, fortune. ifj rah, a road, path ; rahguzartj a highway ; rahzany a highwayman. ^Joibb^ rahamdafij to release, rescue^: causal of ^J^j tastan^ (r. tj rah). ^^y^^j rekhtauy to spill, destroy. Jlj reZf a crumb, particle. .UamJ; rtstnan^ a rope, chord. ^JSj J mA, the beard, a suit of clothes for festive occasions; reshy a sore, a wound. J td\j zada^ bom, a descendant : used in comp. ; as, skah-zada, bom of a king. Qfj zagh, a crow, a raven. t^Jbij zahidy a holy man, a hermit ^jjlj zOyidan^ to bear, bring forth. ^\ zaban, the tongue, a language. ^y>j zabufh a captive, a dupe. js>-j zi/Ty hindering, force, threat ^^^J zadan (r. ^J zan\ to strike, inflict jj zar^ gold, money, wealth. ^^^^]jj zard'atj cultivated ground. imZ^J zishty hideous, ugly ; ziaht-rue, of an ugly face ; zisht-kMief of a vile temper. ^^Uj zamWy time, season, an age. jjjt«) zanAUy earth, land, region, ^j 5ran, a wife, woman. lit zina^ fomication, rape. ^1jj| zinddfiy a prison, a j^l. ^Sij zindaka, idolatry, impiety. ift^j zindagi^ existence, life. ^Si) zinda, alive. jl^J zinhdr, take care ! beware ! dtj zud, soon, quick, speedily. j^J zor, force, violence. ifjb^ zit/ada, more, increase. uk) ^iy^^» loss, damage. ^J zer, beneath, below. l^J «Jra or ztra-lcU because, since. ^yiM*JJ ztstafiy to live, exist ^^J zirii a saddle. j^pt^-U* sdkhtan, to make, frame, form. d^N^LM tfa'a^, an hour, an instant. JIaw sa/, ja year. ^j^tw *an, mode, manner ; chi-san, how ? J^scLm saniha^ revelation (of the mar- vellous.) ^jmjL* soris, a gioom* a manager. ^Lm saych shade, shelter. V^«.^\JgM sabab, cause, reason. ^A»w «a6i^, a cup, jar, pot, pitcher. jXm sipar, a shield, target ^2)t^J^ supurdan or sipurdan (r. tlxw 8ipar)y to entrust, consign. ^ Jyuj situdan, to praise. ^^Um sutun, a pillar, prop. K2J^a:***sakhawat^ liberality, munificence. Ci^As;**' sakhty hard, strong, violent. j^js*** sukhan or sukhun, a word, a mater, a thing in general, ^ ^ar, the head, top ; a design : «f>r, a secret ( 13 ) \xui I, rl It** ^^ ^/** ^^^^ ^^ sarae, an inn. Ul;.j*< 5or-a-pa, from head to foot, en- tirely. Ji4J^\jjM sarastma, disturbed, delirious. c|^ suragh^ a sign, mark, trace. jiAJjM*8arba muhr^ sealed up at the top. }^j j^ sar-i-rah, a road, path. Om^m sirishty nature^ constitution. J^jtM sarkoTj a headman, G)urt, Gro- vemment i^^jt** surod, a song* a melody. )J*M sazQf desert, punishment jAm safar, a journey, voyage. jS^Lm sikandaVf Alexander the Great i^J^ sag, a dog. JLm salam^ salutation, peace, safety. ^UaLj sultan^ a supreme ruler, em- peror, king. ^j**-})^ salts, easy, familiar, not abstruse. d^^^f^ samt, direction, side, quarter. «amj sam\ hearing, the ear. lIXaaw sang; a stone, a weight MM sUy side, direction. jiyM sawar, a horseman; sawdr shu^ dan, to be mounted. Jlyw su-aly asking, begging, a question. ^^y^ siwae, except, besides. ^ ^Ji^yu sokhtan, to burn, to be inflamed . jbljy** saudagar, a merchant >\-li»^ saugandy an oath; saugand khurdan, to swear, literally, '* to eat an oath." (Vide Story la) A^M siwuMy the third, thirdly. C:^MM sawiyat, equality, fairness. JCm sih, three. CI^maiLjLmi siyasatt punishment Uw» ( 14 ) u xUjm siyaky black. Aj^ sikh, a spit. jj^ sair, a walk, a journey. ^dxM «27a, a blow, a buffet. Jli^m silz, a blow, a dap. «Ami ^m, silver. JLu^iM tfma, the bosom, breast a^Am* ^n?2«;7i, the third, thirdly. (^ JL& shddiy marriage, rejoicing. jciut sha'iTy a poet aIm^ sham, evening. ]sLmi «AaA, a king, monarch. JJbldMi shahid, a witness, a bystander. )Sfa>j^i$Li^ sKdh'Zada^ a king's son, prince. ^^^UMjLt shayistafiy to be fit, proper. Ci;.^ Moft, night, evening. u.^UJ1i shiiabi haste, speed. yLt shutur^ a camel. C>t^^ shaja^ati valour, prowess. (jca^ shakhSf a person. ^iXt shudan, to be^ become. ^^ sharks interpretation, commentary. lo^ shartf stipulation, wager. Ajt*» sharrrii shame. ]{jJLyM sharmanda, ashamed, con- founded, abashed. 9)j^ shuru'i beginning, attack. im^jiit shanf^ noble» eminent, holy. dJj^ sharik, a partner, companion. fjiuji, shustan (r. ^ shuX to wash, cleanse. ^1^ shash^ six» f)^ shatranj^ the game of chess. aIam shula, a flame. c::>^r!pM> sMfaaty intercession* depre- cation. KJL^si i ^t shafkaty pity, compassion, af- fection. CXm shakk^ doubt ^vCi shikar, hunting, prey, game. d^^lCt shikayaty complaint jCm shukr, thanks; shakar, sugar. vr --rC* shikast^f defeat, disaster. ^UuCt shikastan (root ^j^ shikan\ to break, defeat >C& sMkamj the belly. ^yll^ shugun, an omen of good. UJI> shuma, you : plur. of y , thou. jjJLaJL shamsKzr, a sword,, scimatar. ^jii-lxi shiriakhtan, (r. ^^Llt shinas\ to know, recognise. ^^t3ajL& shimdan, to hear ; also «Atiii»- (/ait, shamdan, > «^ «/tor, noise, tumult, uproar. Jb^ shohar and sAatJAar, a husband. 4^ sugar. j%J^ shahr, a city ; a lunar month, Cl^L«4^ shah-mat, check-mate ; literally. (( kinir dead.** jj^ sher, a lion, a tiger. ^ji:^ Shtrin, name of a lady, wife of Khusru Parwiz. a^^^jJ^ shJsha, a phial, a glass. ^UajJa Shaitdn, Satan, the DeviL U^ X»a sahib, a companion, a lord, master: in composition, it means endowed with ; as, sahib-kamalf pos- sessed of perfection. (Vid. Grr. p. 28. b.) lJU) ( 15 ) 9\^ saf, pure, clear» evident. JliC salihy honest) sincere, wise. ^U^ sabah^ morning, dawn of day; ''ala-s-sabdh or U-U^ sabahan, early in the morning. ^^ 8ubh, the morning, dawn, Aurora. I^s^ sahrd^ a desert, a plain. i3^ sad^ a hundred. JL^ sarrqff a banker, money- changer, i^ ^a?/| changing, turning; stiff, pure, merely. )s^M^ ^a fva, a kind of sparrow. *— fi^ *a^, drawing up (men) in ranks ; saffzada, mustered, arrayed. ^iLo saldhy advice, counsel. ^^ sulh, peace* concord. jj^Sx^ sanduky a chest, box, trunk ; sandukcha^ a small box. <^y^ surat, form, figure, face. Sx^ said, hunting, prey» game. ^j^Li zdmin, a surety, sponsor. c» fi >ir., ^ za'?f, infirm, weak, poor, ilyo ziyafat^ a feast, invitation. j[U9 /QA;, a shelf» recess in a wall ; copula. C^^lb taliby asking, studious. v^^jUL tibabat, the medical art (•^•^ool? tabibf a doctor, physician. cJ^ taraf, extremity, direction, side. ^Ub /a'a^w, food, eating. ^U^ tuma, food, dinner. (J^ /(^, an infant, a child. iU9 ^//a, gold, gold fringe. yJ^Vio ialdky divorce) dismissal. L^JJb talab, petition, demand, wages; talab ddshtan, to search. ^JojdL talabtdan, to seek for, call. 9^ tama\ avidity, desire. iJo taur, mode, manner, condition. ^SsJs tutif a parrot J^ ^au/ or tul, length, height, du- ration, -b tay^i traversing, travelling ; tayy kardan, to traverse, pass over. (w^^vjJ^ tayyib, good, agreeable. Jit zdlim, tyrannical, oppressive. ^Ife zdhify ckar, evident, • certain. iJo ^ar/*, a vessel, a vasci bottle. sl}Jo zarifi witty, learned, graceful. lic ""itdb, reproof, anger. C.^lac^ 'ajd-ibt marvels, wonders. c--«o kdmil, perfect, entire, accomplished. aO A:am, desire, intention ; kdm nd" kdm, willingly or unwillingly. 8o iaA, straw,' hay, grass. u^od kabdb, meat, fried or roasted. L^l!o A:2Va6, a book, an epistle. (^Q■J.t^ kastfy coarse, thick. lac^ kujdy where ? what place ? how ? ^-tf^ kaj-maj, crooked, cross purposes. Ai^ kuddm, what one? which? ji kar, deaf. ^)ji kirdya^ hire, fare, rent, ^^d^kardan (r. ^ kun\to do, to make. lywJ A;a«, a person, any, some one. kinar, side, bosom, margin. s^Lo kinara or A^nara, side, brink, shore of the sea or river. ^iyx> kandan^ to dig, extract, tear up. JjjS kanzz, a maiden, a maid-servant. sli^ kotah^ short, small. ^^^kotrmli a magistrate, judge, jj^ A:or or iwr, blind. jS kuZy hump- backed, crooked. &i kiy who? that, used as a conjunc- tive particle, like the Greek ort, after verbs signifying to think, speak, tell,&a ^ kuhatty also JU^ kuhna, old, worn. MjbJL^ fast, for J^, and c: »1, who is? XuiJo ktsa or kesa, a purse, a bag. ^^ gahy time, also place (in composition). Ijo^aefa, poor, a beggar, mendicant ^1/^M guzashtan^ to quit, forsake, leave. jd^ guzar^ a pass, passing. ^Xi*i? guzaahtan (x,jm guzar), to pass, pass by. ^ gar f if I contraction of j^l. ulr S^^^y heavy, important, valuable. ^ gurba^ a cat ^^ girdy around; ^ar(i^ dust. ^«Xaj)J^ gardamdan^ to circulate, to effect, cause to become, i:)*^ go^rdan^ the neck. ^j^j^^ gardidaUj to turn round, to be, to become. i a thiunp, a blow. aW lijdm or lajdm, a bridle, the reins. ^yJ^i laziz, sweet, pleasant. ^J larza^ a shaking, trembling, tremor. cA^ ladff good, pleasant, kind. ai^A^ ladfoy a witty saying, pleasantry. (JJ /aV, a ruby, a gem. IsAi lafz^ a word, a vocable. 4XAfli lukma, a morsel, a mouthful. \iJi lak, a numeral expressive of 100,000. JSi ligdm or lagdm, a bridle. (JLXil /a;^^, lame, an epitliet applied to the celebrated Timur. ^^^ lekm^ but, yet, nevertheless. jtju\ la^im^ a base man. r to «w5, we : plur. of the 1st person. ^Jut cl;U mdtshudan, to be check- mated ; mdt'kardan, to give check- mate* J^>-U md-jardi an accident, event, what has passed or occurred. j4>to mddar, a mother. St^U mddaf a female. ^L> jU madiydnt a mare. JLo waZ, wealth, treasure, property. (k^Lo mdlik, a master, possessor. # ^^iXaILo mdlzdany to rub, to anoint ^tX!U mdndan, to remain, continue. sU mdh, the moon, a month. ^U mdhl, a fish. ^;^ ^Ist mdhZ'gzr, a fisherman, a fish- catcher. \t}h^ma'bddd. May it not be ! God forbid ! ^Iju mubdlagha, a strenuous efibrt, urgency, hyperbole. ilxo mablaghy a sum (of money) price. J^lxo muta-ammily thoughtfiil, con- templative. ^jJU mutadayyin, orthodox, religious. w^s:*'^»iwto*q2)/^»^*o'^^shed, wondering. j^slLc mutafakkir, meditating, thoughtfiil. ^iJto mutaki^ sober, pious, temperate. (jwt« mt^/, similitude, like, likeness. L-jj(Xs^ majzubf abstracted, absent Ojsr^ mujarrady solitary, alone. ^i#Jar* majliSy an assembly, company. <0y^^ maA62i^6a, loved, esteemed. ^Usr^ muhtdj^ in want of, destitute. M^js^ mdhrumy excluded, disappointed.. )a^nst^ mahzuZj pleased, delighted. jAac^ muhakkaTf vile, trifling, con- temptible, worthless. ^«iaff* muhkamy strong, firm, firmly. cV^cs^ Mukammadi a man's name, the celebrated prophet of the Muslims. r^ ( tiy4ee* Mahmudi a man's namet a king of GhisEni, about A*D. 1000. ^d^ f^ mahtV'kardan, to wipe out il3ar« mukhtar, absolute, a free agent u-aUs**' mukhtaliff diverse, various. ijL^tVo mtiddat, a space of time. Mg,S^madh, praise, eulogy, encomium. ^^JS^ madrasa, a college, sch<^L ^c*i^ miidda'iy plaintiff^ accuser. j^^ mazkur^ mentioned, aforesaid. j^ mara^ me, to me. ^\r^ murafa^a, citing before a Judge, a law-suit ^j^ martaba^ step, dignity* a time. ^j^ marsiya^ an elegy, a funeral oration. t^j< mardf a man, a hero. aJ^ mardum, a person, man. ^i^j^ murdan, (root^^ mir\ to die. ^dj^ murdOf plur. murdagan, dead. jy^ ^ jj^ marz o kishrvar^ empire, kingdom. fj^ murgh, a fowl, a bird. ji\tii^ musafir, a traveller) a stranger. • ^Um^ mcLsakinf habitations, dwellings. \j:^AMi^niast^ intoxicated, wanton, furious. f^jj**^ mostly intoxication. dss***^ masjidf a mosque, or any place of worship. ^js'**^ maskhara^ a jester, a buffoon. ^^;XXmv« maskzUf humble, poor, wretched. l-jAmj^ tnaslubf seized, stripped, erred. 4XjUmw« masnad, a throne, a prop. kj:^J^ mtisht, the fist, a blow. J JtA^ mashghulf occupied, engaged in. .•^#^ mash-hury celebrated, notorious, public. 20 ) ^ ^i>A g h.l. ^ ^ mtesdhiby a companion, a friend, courtier. * Ci^'cs^^'^^ maslahaty good counsel, good policy, the best course to adopt or the best thing to be done. j^^^ musaromir^ a painter. ;oia^ mathakhy the kitchen, a place for cooktbg. L-JyL^ mutrib, a musician, a minstrel. OIx« muttali^ inspecting, seeing. ma', with, in the company o£ 9U« muafy forgiven, spared, free. jdL«U« mucbnala^ business^ transaction, affair. ^UuU..^ muayanay beholding^ seeing clearly. j^tXjc« ma'zurt excused, excusable. L^^^^ 9ita'i^, celebrated, well known. Am^ mu'aUim^ a doctor, teacher^ sage. ^jLc« ma'lumf known, evident (.^A« md*na or ma nit sense, meaning, fact, a sacred record. {Jm Mughalj name of a Tartar or Scythian tribe, vulgarly Mogtd. dyiSL^ mafkudy missing, not to be found. yJs s L'c mufliSt poor, indigent ^^mJla^ muflisty poverty, destitution. Sjkk^muftd, usefid, salutary. JJLe makam, place, residence. jlj^ mikdar, quantity, space, measure. ^[^ mikraZy shears, scissors. JiiLo mukfal, locked, bolted, stingy. jC^magar, but, unless, only. {^j*JU magas, a fly..^ ci.9Ul« mtdakat, meeting, interview. - ^^«Lo maVun^ accursed, the Evil One > ( 21 ) ^yLcmalul, fatigued, vexed. LlAL«mt/A;,property ; midkia, coantry^kiog- dom; malikySL king; malak^aa angel. ^^^Ia^ mumkin^ possible, practicable. ^ man, the 1st pers. pronoun, I. 4^ jLLe manadi, a proclamation. c:^ljl«me^)^ mt^yo mautf death. ^^ y -yo mujiby cause, motive, reason. *^f*'y^ ffiaujUd, existing, found, ready. <— '^^ mausHf, praised, qualified, de- scribed. i^^yc maulawty a doctor of the Mu- hammadan law. ^yc mum or mom^ wax, a wax candle. M^yo mawhum, imaginary, fancied. (^^ mue, hair, wool, fur. j^ muhr, a seal, a seal ring; mihr, friendship, love. ^U^ mihr-baity kind, beneficent. Cl'^Vg'^t mihUity delay, space of time. ^U^ mihmany a guest, a stranger. ^^ mcuy wine, spirituous liquor. ^Ix* miyan, middle, interval, space. A^ mekhy a peg, a tent pin or pole. r^ u li na^ a negative particle to adjectives, participles, and infinitives. UjoL) hSbmay not seeing, blind. ^Lj-li nacJiaTy helpless, without remedy. Jf^-ll naJiakkf unjust, untrue, j^^li nakhushy displeased. (JJiU naJcUy a narrator, historian. sob' na-gah, suddenly, unexpectedly. (jaJu nalishf lamentation, complaint ^^mJu nalisMj a complainant, plaintiff. aU nam, name, renown. ^5(>^Una-mar^f,unmanliness,cowardice. jjU nan, bread, a loaf. ^--<>U na-ib, a lieutenant, deputy. CL^li^ najaif freedom, salvatioi^ escape. l^fcXS nadimy a companion, a courtier, jjj na^r, a present or offenng. ^ nar^ a male. 4>ji na;2r6i?, near, about, in the possession of. CLAj4>ji nazdtky near, close to. cfi na^;', removal; na^'*i rawan, the last breath, the soul's departure. CL *»j»»o nisbatf affinity, connection. ^UJ ni>Mn, a trace, mark. ^iXJuUJ nishanidanj to place, cause to sit down ; also ^Jol^J. ImmU nishastan, or nishistan, (r. ^jX»^ nisAzn), to sit, stop, settle. sua> ni^ the half, middle. yj^s^Lai nasihatf advice, admonition, a sermon. Jai nazary the sight, the eye. 4^ nu^rriy prosperity, good fortune. ntmaty a blessing, favour, prosperity. cr «A^ naf^^ gain» profit, advantage. ^^ nafaka^ maintenance, salary. ^IaJ nakkash^ a painter. iVftJ nakd, ready money» cash. (j£ksS nakshy a painting, a picture. ^LoaJ nuksan, damage, 4eficiency, loss. j5Cj nukta, a point, a quaint saying. iiljj nigahj a look, observation ; ne^aA dashtan^ to watch over, preserve; nigah-dary a preserver : also used as an interjection, beware \ have a care ! jUo namaZy prayer, worship. dyA^ ncmmdy an appearance, index. ^J|^ naiTii/eiKan, to appear, to shew, to make. ^ y nat^^ new, fresh, young. Cl^y naubaty time, turn, opportunity. ^^jl^y navishtan (r. i;**iy itat??*), to write; also ^jX^ljii nabishtan, ^l^jjj-iy Naushtrwan, name of a Per- sian king, famed for equity. ^ J nateArar, a servant, slave. :$tyjw J navtsanda, a writer. ^, the negative particle, not; n««A, nine. ^jjl^ nihadany to place, put, apply. d^Ui niyabat^ the office of a deputy. • yo mz, also, even, likewise. c:^^*MJU ?»ii9A he, she, it, is not. CXu neA;, good, beautiful, right. ^^UGo ff^Ar-naTTti, fame, renown. ^jo nekOy good, excellent. ▲A) nayarrty I am not. >jj nm, the half, the middle. ( 22 ) I^ W?a, back, reverse. ^^jMhJi^ wapaSy back, returned. Cli^ic);)^ tmridatj events, occurrences. Ly^'^^ foajahy a span, about nine inches. J^^ wajhj face, mode, manner, ci^l^j wazarat, the office of a wcuur, jlj^ wcunr^ a minister, the king's vicegerent cAk^^ ti7a^, description, quality, ^jbj, nw/!vt or watan^ one^s native coun- try, home. sScy wotdc^ a promise, a vow, pledge. mP^ wc^Zy a sermon, admonition, lecture. ti^ n?q/&, fidelity, sincerity, d^lj^ wafdt, death, decease, d^^ n^ajr/*, time, hour, season. Jjki^ fvaA;?^, an agent, deputy, factor. ,^y tvaiy 3d pers. pron. he, she, it. wa (sometimes o), and, but. ^jj^wt HdruHi a man's name. *>J^jJI cJi^j'* -Erarttii-ar-rflwA2ii,"Harun the Wise,*' one of the Khalifas, of Baghdad. js^ hqjWy ridicule, satire, lampoon. J* haVy every, each. ^^J^ harchandy although, notwith- standing. i^^karchiy whatsoever. hSj^ harkiy every one who, whosoever. 80^ hargah, every time, whenever. SjB^ hargiZy ever, at all, on any account. J^^ HurmuZt name of a Persian king. j|^ hazar^ a thousand. \JL>^J^ hazimatf flight, defeat. ^JujJb hastatty to be, to exist; a de- fective verb. (Vide Gram. p. 48. c.) .« A ( 23 ) Ji Lll.'vlft hasht, eight ^ ham^ even, also, (in composition) ^ together. ^Ujb haman, that very, even that ; ha- man-dam, that very instant ^ae^^ hamchU^ even as, like. ^Uar^ hamchunan^ such as that, even so. s|^>«Jb /lam-rdh, a companion, along with. <)L)L^4^tb ham-sa^Uy a neighbour. ^UJb hamp, all, every one ^^M*JL4Jb hamesha, always. ^^jMJt Aa»»-m, even this, this very. i^dJJb SindUy an IndiaUf a Hindu. ^U^t^JoZb Hindustan, India. J Jjt hanoz, yet, still, at present JXjJb kangdm, time, season. 1 Jb A(Ziz?a, the air, the sky. ^Jb hech, any, at all> in the least. b ya, either, or. t^jyadt memory, remembrance. jlS jL) yddgdr, a memorial. »l> yar, a friend. ^jlib ydftan^ to find, obtain. (J^, ya'fUy that is to say, namely. ^jJb yakm, certainty, for certain. (i^Aj yaA*, one, a or an : sometimes joined to the following word; as, larV. yak-jd, in one place, together. j^jd^ yak-diram, a diram^ a small coin. ji^*^yak-dtgar, one wiother. JIam^ji yaA^^a/,one year, a twelvemonth. ^IjwaC[ yaksdn, equal, similari identical. j^J^ yak-hazdr, a thousand. <«LLaO yak-yak, or ViIIAaaC) yak-ba- yak, one by one, individually, one after another. ADDITIONAL COERECTIONS. P. 13> 1. 20. In some copies the reading is, ** when the ^^ quiescent is pre- ceded by zamma " — instead of which, read, " when the letter f^ is preceded by zamma.'* P. 41, Rule III., read, " Infinitives in ^J dan, preceded by ^ n, j r,j z," &c. Pp. 44, 45, In the examples of the verbs *' to strike," and " (O be ^'■•—instead of Second Future,'"* read, "Simple FutureJi- W. M. Watts, Crown Court, Temple Bar.] • » * i > ** J \ J • < ■ ■ T^ • ¥ , I ■ ■ « f I ■ -1 - "«■ , !■" »»• .\ ^ '•'% *« •'> --J. ^ • -f.'A, . % *i fi